REFORMATION

1. Background

 Two major developments 

a) Protestant Reformation which resulted in a split in Christianity and the secession of a large number of countries from the Roman Catholic church and the establishment of separate churches in those countries generally on national lines.

• Protestant Revolution began in Germany in 1517 when Martin Luther a monk Augustine proposed his ninety-five thesis or statements. He rejected the entire system of the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, introduced German as the language of church services, abolished the special status of priests as representatives of god on earth and emphasised faith rather than pilgrimage.
• German ruler and common people of Germany supported Luther
• The rulers wanted to be free from the authority of Popes and get possessions of the wealth in German Monasteries of themselves.
• The common people on the other hand liked Luther’s teaching because it allowed them to demand more freedom from their rulers. As a result, a new form of Christianity known as Protestantism was created. The Protestant movement soon spread to other parts of Europe.
• In Switzerland, the protestant Reformation was led by Zwingli and John Calvin. Religious sets similar to the Calvinists were called Puritans in England and America, Presbyterians in Scotland and Huguenots in France. 

2. What was its meaning?

• over time many abuses crept into the church so the Reformation was a protest against certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church and an attempt to remove evils. As it turned out, the reformers and the protesters separated themselves from the Roman Catholic Church and started new Protestant churches.
• Thus Christians in Europe came to be divided into two major groups-Protestants(those who rose against the Papal authority and monopoly of the Roman Catholic church)and Catholics (those who remained loyal to the Roman Catholic church). 

3. Why did it Begin?

• With the accumulation of wealth and worldly power by the church, the clergy were tempted to neglect their spiritual duties and became engrossed in worldly pursuits, many abuses and evil practices grew in the church.
• Simony- clerical offices were no longer filled by worthy men but were sold for money, which was known as Simony. 
• Plurality-another obnoxious practice in which clergymen could hold more than one post. These clergymen behaved like feudal lords and exploited people. 
• Letter of Indulgence A clergyman of every state was required to pay his first-year income to the pope as” Annates” or “First Fruit”, even the pope sold various kinds of pardon certificates such as “Indulgences” “, Absolutions” and” Dispensations” ostensible to save the people from sins, crimes and fire of hell. So the church had deteriorated into a kind of commercial organization. The movement against the letter of indulgence was led by Martin Luther.
• Erasmus, a Renaissance scholar from Holland, criticized the clergy and the blind faith of the people; he pleaded for a return to the simple teachings of Jesus Christ and wanted to reform the church by appealing to reason.
• Renaissance bred the spirit of enquiry developed a critical attitude of mind widened the mental outlook of men. It encouraged original and independent thinking on scientific lines. The people now began to question the authority of the pope and criticize the corrupt practices and rituals and the immoral life of the clergy
• Pope thought himself to be the representative of god on earth, hence frequently interfered in the internal affairs of different states.
• The interference of the pope in the political affairs of different states was naturally strongly opposed by the kings and they became anti-pope.
• Rulers of many European nation-states, such as France, England, Spain, Holland etc and many of their subjects now began to regard the pope as an outsider. They objected to the concept of a Universal church and wanted a national church free from the control of a foreign pope. The popes tried to exert their authority, but the kings in combination with their people overthrew the power of the pope and, made their national churches independent of his authority.
• Heavy religious taxation alienated the growing capitalist class, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy. Certain Protestant sects encouraged economic individualism and contested the restriction that the clergy had imposed upon commercial pursuits
• Babylonian Captivity- between 1305 and 1378 a great catastrophe overwhelmed the papacy, with the election of Clement v, the papacy fell into the hands of the French, and the seat of the church was moved from Rome to Avignon in France. Due to this event, the church came to be dominated by the French Why should the English or Spanish submit to a French pope? National governments all over Europe passed laws to limit or in some cases prevent papal intervention in the affairs of the state
• The Great Western Schism-(1378-1415)-after emerging from Babylonian captivity confronted with other problems, in the ensuing confusion, two popes were elected, one representing French interest and the other Italian interest. The church was supposedly a single organization established by Christ, with a pope as his successor on earth so people lost respect for the institution

4. How did it begin?

• Why Reformation Started in Germany- Political conditions were favourable in Germany, and the position of Emperor was not very strong Discontentment increased against the pope in Germany Humanism flourished too much in Germany.
• Germans lacked a strong centralized government to aid the church in carrying out decrees
• It was the home of Martin Luther a dynamic critic of the Church.
• Several German princes itching for civil war and they eyed the work of Luther as a good excuse. Nobles and peasants also supported Luther.

5. Peace of Augsberg (1555)

• Hostilities broke out between Catholic and Protestant states but peace was temporarily restored at the peace of Augsburg. According to this, each prince might dictate the religion he wished his subjects to have, provided that it was either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism. Lutheranism was thus recognized and its rights defined. Lutheranism spread to other countries. 
• Other than Lutherans two other large groups developed –the Calvinists and Anglicans
• The foundation for the rise of Calvinism was laid by Zwingli. He preached against fasting, the Celibacy of the clergy and the veneration of the saints. 
• He insisted more strongly than Luther on the supreme authority of the Bible and diverged radically from the service in the Catholic Church. 
• His work was renewed by Calvin with more aggressiveness. 
• Calvinism soon spread to France, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary etc.
• Anglicism was another form adopted by the third large group of the Protestant sects
• It became the faith and order of the established church of England and the protestant Episcopal church in the USA and from it originated the Methodist Church. 
• In many respects Anglicism was more conservative and evolutionary than either Lutheranism or Calvinism. 
• During the reign of Henry VII of the Tudor dynasty some differences arose between the catholic church and the king but it was not until the reign of Henry VIII that a definite break came Henry VIII declared himself head of the church when the pope refused to allow him to divorce his wife, Catherine. 
• His reign was followed by long conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In 1559 Queen Elizabeth I established the Church of England as the official church. 

6. Significance

• One of the important offshoots of the Reformation was the Counter-Reformation or catholic reformation as opposed to the Protestant Reformation.
• The Council of Trent, a council summoned by the church at Trent in Northern Italy to bring about reforms, earnestly undertook to remove some of the most glaring abuses and to restore unity in the church. The representative affirmed the main points in catholic theology but condemned the sale of church offices and demanded that the clergy adhere more strictly to duties.
• Several orders were also established “.The Society of Jesus “founded by Ignatius Loyola was one of the most important. They sought to enhance the power of the Roman Catholic church through the establishment of schools and missionary work
• Unity of Christendom and the universality of the church became the things of the past. The uniformity in doctrines, dogmas, and rituals also came to an end.
• There was a split in the church into Protestantism and Catholicism. These two groups broke into many sects.
• National churches were set up in many countries with their own doctrines, principles and sacraments. The heads of these churches were the rulers of these countries and not the Pope.
• Rivalries between two major groups of Christians, the Catholic Inquisition was responsible for persecution of Protestants and they were burnt alive at the stake. Mary Tudor of England is known as” Bloody Mary” in history because of her bloody deeds of persecuting the Protestants. The Protestants too did not follow a policy of religious toleration towards Catholics.