After the death of Harsha, there was no political unity in north India for about five centuries. The country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and changing their frontiers. The important kingdoms in north India were Kashmir, Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmir, Malwa, Bengal and Assam.

1. Rajput Kingdom

• Began in the seventh and eighth centuries and lasted till the Muslim conquest in the twelfth century.
• They were the main defenders of the Hindu religion and culture. Homogenous by constant intermarriage and by adopting common customs.
• They made war their chief occupation.
• However, trade and agriculture also prospered.
• The Arab travellers refer to the prosperity of the land and the great trade of the cities.
• They built strong forts.

2. The Gurjara-Prathiharas

• Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers.
• Its first great leader was Harischandra.
• He conquered extensive territory in Rajaputana and ruled with his capital at Bhinmal.
• The Gurjaras were in different branches.
• One branch ruled Gujarat and another at Avanti.
• The Pratiharas involved themselves in a three-cornered contest with the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan.
• Later the Pratiharas became weak.
• The Chauhans, the most valiant of the Rajput races, ruled Ajmir.
• Vigraharaj was their most important king, who occupied Delhi.
• Therefore the Chauhans faced the onslaught of the Muslims under Muhammad of Ghori.
• The Paramaras were also important Rajput rulers of this period.
• The most important king was Bhoja.
• His military conquests as well as cultural contributions remain notable in the history of Rajputs.

3. Arab Conquest of Sind (712 A.D.)

• The religion Islam was born in Mecca in Arabia.
• Its founder was Prophet Muhammad.
• He migrated to Medina in 622 A.D., which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar and the Muslim era called hijra.
• The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the Caliphate. The Umayyads and the Abbasids were called the caliphs.

4. Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030)

• Mahmud is said to have made seventeen raids into India. At that time, North India was divided into several Hindu states. On the frontier of India, there existed the Hindu Shahi kingdom which extended from the Punjab to Kabul.
• The other important kingdoms of north India were Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala was defeated in 1001.
• After this defeat, Jayapala immolated himself because he thought that his defeat was a disgrace. His successor Anandapala fought against Mahmud but he was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind, the Hind Shahi capital near Peshawar in 1008.
• In this battle, Anandapala was supported by the rulers of Kanauj and Rajasthan. As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud extended his rule over most of the Punjab.
• The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India were aimed at plundering the rich temples and cities of northern India. In 1011, heraided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi. In 1018, Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura and also attacked Kanauj.
• The ruler of Kanauj, Rajyapala abandoned Kanauj and later died. Mahmud returned via Kalinjar with fabulous riches.
• His next important raid was against Gujarat. In 1024, Mahmud marched from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated the Solanki King Bhimadeva I, plundered Anhilwad and sacked the famous temple of Somanatha.
• Then, he returned through the Sind desert. This was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in 1030 A.D. Mahmud was considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.
• He also patronized art and literature. Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account of India.

5. Mohammad Ghori

• The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.
• Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid Empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their control.
• Having made his position strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori turned his attention to India.
• Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in this direction.

6. The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)

• Realising their grave situation, the Hindu princes of north India formed a confederacy under the command of Prithviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj rose to the occasion and defeated Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191 A.D.
• Muhammad Ghori felt greatly humiliated by this defeat.
• In the ensuing second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori thoroughly routed the army of Prithviraj, who was captured and killed.
• The second battle of Tarain was decisive.
• It was a major disaster for the Rajputs.
• Their political prestige suffered a serious setback.
• The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
• The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer and a new era in the history of India began.
• After his brilliant victory over Prithviraj at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite general Qutb-uddin Aibak to make further conquests in India.
• Aibak consolidated his position in India by occupying places like Delhi and Meerut.
• In 1193 he prepared the grounds for another invasion by Muhammad Ghori.
• This invasion was directed against the Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra. Muhammad routed Jayachandra's forces.
• Kanauj was occupied by the Muslims after the battle of Chandawar.
• The Battles of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish rule in India.

7. Causes for the failure of Hindu Kingdoms

• The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analyzed historically.
• The most important cause was that they lacked unity.
• They were divided into factions.
• The Rajput princesses exhausted one another through their mutual conflicts.
• Secondly, many Hindu states were declining in power.
• Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of Muslims.
• Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving cavalry.
• The Muslim soldiers had better organization and able leaders.
• Their religious zeal and their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus to them.
• Among the Hindus, the duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas.
• Moreover, the Hindus were always on the defensive, which was always a weak position.