GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)
1. Context
India’s forests could store nearly twice as much carbon by the end of this century as they do now if current greenhouse gas emission trends continue, according to a new modelling study published this week in the journal Environmental Research: Climate
2.What are greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).
These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change
Here are the major greenhouse gases:
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
- Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
- Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
- Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
- Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.
Here's how the greenhouse effect works:
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Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.
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Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.
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Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.
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Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming
4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?
- Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
- HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
- However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
- Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
- Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC
5. What are the adverse effects?
The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.
Some of these effects include:
- The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
- Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
- Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
- Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
- Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
- Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
- Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions
6.What is Montreal Protocol?
The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.
Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:
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Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.
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Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.
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Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.
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Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.
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Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.
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International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)
7.Way Forward
Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs
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For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022)
(A) Methane
(B) Sulphur dioxide
(C) Surface Ozone
(D) Nitrogen dioxide
(E) Carbon dioxide
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :
1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only
2.(A), (C), (E) only
3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only
4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only
Answer (2)
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Source: Indianexpress
DELIMITATION EXERCISE
1. Context
As the delimitation row continues to simmer, former Lok Sabha Secretary General P D T Achary tells The Indian Express that it is the job of the Delimitation Commission and not the government to decide the allocation of seats to states as per Article 81 (2) (a)
2. About delimitation
- Delimitation refers to the process of determining the number of seats and defining the boundaries of electoral constituencies for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies.
- It also involves allocating seats specifically reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) within these legislative bodies.
- As outlined in Articles 82 and 170 of the Constitution, the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, as well as the demarcation of constituencies, is subject to adjustment following each Census.
- This delimitation process is overseen by a Delimitation Commission established by an act of Parliament.
- Such redistricting exercises have historically occurred following the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses.
3. Constitutional Requirements and Current Status
- The constitutional requirement for democratic governance stipulates that the government should be elected by the people, with the principle of 'one citizen-one vote-one value' being paramount.
- Historically, the number of seats in the Lok Sabha was determined based on population figures from the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses, resulting in an average population per seat of 7.3 lahks, 8.4 lahks, and 10.1 lahks respectively.
- However, since the 1971 Census, the number of seats has been frozen to incentivize population control measures, ensuring that states with higher population growth do not gain disproportionately higher representation.
- This freeze was initially implemented through the 42nd Amendment Act until the year 2000 and extended by the 84th Amendment Act until 2026.
- Consequently, seat allocation is based on the population figures from the 1971 Census, with adjustments slated to occur following the first Census after 2026.
- Ordinarily, the delimitation process, including determining the number of seats, defining territorial constituency boundaries, and allocating reserved seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), would align with the Census of 2031, being the first Census post-2026.
- However, with the postponement of the 2021 Census and the approach of the year 2026, discussions are underway regarding the impending delimitation exercise.
5. International Practices in Seat Allocation
- In the United States, the number of seats in the House of Representatives, akin to India's Lok Sabha, has remained fixed at 435 since 1913. Despite the population increase from 9.4 crore in 1911 to an estimated 33.4 crore in 2023, the method of equal proportion is utilized to redistribute seats among states following each Census. This method aims to maintain fairness, ensuring that no significant gain or loss occurs for any state. For instance, after the 2020 Census, 37 states saw no change in their number of seats, while Texas gained two seats, five states gained one seat each, and seven states lost one seat each.
- In the European Union Parliament, comprised of 720 members, seat allocation among its 27 member countries follows the principle of degressive proportionality. This principle entails that the ratio of population to the number of seats increases as population size increases. For example, Denmark, with a population of around 60 lahks, has 15 seats (with an average population of 4 lahks per member), while Germany, with a population of 8.3 crores, has 96 seats (with an average population of 8.6 lahks per member).
6. Proposed Ideal Solution
- The dilemma between democratic and federal principles in delimitation can be effectively addressed by striking a balance that acknowledges the significance of both. A harmonious solution can be achieved by giving equal weight to democratic representation and federal structure.
- The number of Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Lok Sabha could be capped at the current level of 543 seats. This ensures continuity in representation from various states, thereby upholding the federal principle. MPs primarily legislate on matters listed in the Union List, such as Defense, External Affairs, Railways, Telecommunication, and Taxation, and hold the Central government accountable.
- To meet democratic representational requirements, the number of Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in each state can be increased in alignment with the current population. This adjustment can be made without altering the number of seats in the Rajya Sabha, thereby addressing the need for fair representation at the state level.
- Crucially, to strengthen democracy at the grassroots level, empowering local bodies like panchayats and municipalities is imperative. These entities engage directly with citizens on a daily basis and play a vital role in governance. Significant devolution of powers and finances to these bodies is essential to enhance democracy at the grassroots level, ensuring effective citizen participation in decision-making processes.
7. The Way Forward
Finding a balanced approach to delimitation that considers democratic representation, federal stability, and local governance empowerment is crucial for India's future. This proposed solution offers a starting point for discussion and debate to ensure a fair and effective delimitation process that strengthens the nation's democracy.
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For Prelims: Delimitation, Census, Covid-19 Pandemic, Article 82, Article 170 For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the potential conflict between the principle of "one citizen-one vote" and the freezing of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 Census in the context of delimitation. Discuss how this can impact federalism and representation in India. (250 Words)
2. How can the delimitation exercise be conducted in a manner that fosters national integration and strengthens the federal structure of India? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
5. The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to (UPSC 2015)
A. protect the interests of the Scheduled Tribes
B. determine the boundaries between States
C. determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
D. protect the interests of all the border States
Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A
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Source: The Hindu
OVERSEAS CITIZEN OF INDIA (OCI)
1. Context
ON A two-day official visit to Sri Lanka, Vice-President C P Radhakrishnan on Sunday announced the extension of the eligibility for Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card for the Indian community in the island nation till the sixth generation. Until now, this was limited to the fourth generation
2.What is an Overseas Citizen of India Card?
- The OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) scheme, introduced in August 2005, allows for the registration of Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) who were citizens of India on or after January 26, 1950, or who were eligible to become Indian citizens on that date.
- While presenting the bill in Parliament, Home Minister LK Advani highlighted that its aim was to offer dual citizenship to the Indian diaspora.
- An OCI cardholder, who typically holds a foreign passport, is granted a multiple-entry, multi-purpose, lifelong visa to India. They are also exempt from registering with local police regardless of the duration of their stay.
- According to government data, by 2023, there were over 4.5 million registered OCI cardholders from 129 countries. The largest number of OCI cardholders were from the United States, with over 1.68 million, followed by the UK (934,000), Australia (494,000), and Canada (418,000).
- Initially, OCI cardholders were granted general parity with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in areas like economic, financial, and educational facilities, with the exception of acquiring agricultural or plantation properties. NRIs are Indian citizens residing permanently in foreign
3. Rules regarding OCI
- OCI should not be misunderstood as "dual citizenship." It does not grant political rights such as the ability to vote, become a member of the Indian Parliament or state legislatures, or hold constitutional positions like the President, Vice President, or a Judge in the Supreme or High Courts.
- Additionally, OCI cardholders are generally not allowed to work in government positions.
- They must also obtain prior permission from the Government of India to engage in activities such as missionary work, mountaineering, or journalism.
- Furthermore, like other foreigners, OCI cardholders are required to obtain a Protected Area Permit (PAP) or Restricted Area Permit (RAP) to visit areas designated as protected or restricted by the government
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Constitutional Provisions
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4. Person of Indian Origin (PIO)
As per the Citizenship Act of 1955, you are classified as a Person of Indian Origin (PIO) if you are a foreign national and:
- You have held an Indian passport at some point in time; or
- You, your parents, grandparents, or great-grandparents were born in India as defined by the Government of India Act, 1935, or in territories that later became part of India, as long as none of them were ever citizens of Pakistan, Bangladesh, or any other country specified by the Indian government; or
- You are married to an Indian citizen or someone of Indian origin who meets the above conditions.
While Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and PIOs have similar eligibility for financial transactions in India, PIOs face some restrictions. These include the inability to:
- Hold employment in the Indian government services,
- Occupy any constitutional office,
- Engage in activities such as mountaineering, missionary work, or research in restricted areas without prior approval,
- Enter India without a valid visa
5. Non resident India (NRI)
A Non-Resident Indian (NRI) is an Indian citizen who resides outside India for an extended period, typically for purposes such as employment, business, or education. NRIs maintain their Indian citizenship but live abroad for a major part of the year. The status of an NRI is primarily defined under the Income Tax Act of 1961 and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) of 1999, which specify conditions to determine NRI status based on the period of stay in India.
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For Prelims: Citizenship Amendment Act, Minorities, Secularism, NPR, NRC,
For Mains:
1. The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked significant controversy in India. Critically examine the Act's provisions, highlighting the key concerns and potential implications. In your opinion, does the CAA violate the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution? (250 words)
2. Considering the debates surrounding the CAA, critically analyze the concept of citizenship in India. How has the concept evolved, and what are the challenges in defining and managing citizenship in a diverse democracy like India? (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
Consider the following statements: (2018) 1. Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile.
2. Once issued, the Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC 2021) (a) Legal right available to citizens only
(b) Legal right available to any person
(c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only
(d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right
3. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
4. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
5. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
6. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship. (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022)
A. 1954 B. 1971 C. 1981 D. 1966
Answers: 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D, 5-B, 6-B
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Source: The Indian Express
FEMALE LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATE (FLPR)
1. Context
The Indian government has failed in its bid to get Parliamentary approval to bring forward the implementation of the Women’s Reservation Act, with its linkage to the delimitation bill proving to be a stumbling block. Greater participation of women in the economy, though — and not just at the legislative level — is necessary for India to become a developed economy
2. What is the female labour force participation rate (FLPR)?
- The Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLPR) is a crucial economic indicator that measures the percentage of women who are either employed or actively seeking work in relation to the total working-age female population. This metric helps assess the extent to which women are integrated into the workforce and their role in economic development.
- To calculate FLPR, one considers both employed women and those who are unemployed but actively looking for jobs. This figure is then divided by the total number of working-age women (typically aged 15 and above) and expressed as a percentage. A high FLPR suggests that a large proportion of women are engaged in economic activities, whereas a low FLPR indicates limited workforce participation.
- FLPR is significant as it reflects not only gender equality in employment but also the overall economic productivity of a country. When more women participate in the workforce, economic output rises, and household incomes improve. Moreover, a higher FLPR is often linked to greater social progress, as it reflects better access to education and employment opportunities for women.
- In India, the female labour force participation rate has seen considerable fluctuations over the years. The highest recorded FLPR was 40.8% in 2004-05, after which it witnessed a sharp decline.
- Various factors contributed to this trend, including societal norms that discourage female employment, lack of job opportunities in the formal sector, and a rise in household incomes that reduced the economic necessity for women to work. Additionally, many women opted to pursue higher education, further delaying their entry into the workforce.
- The lack of sufficient opportunities in industries such as manufacturing and services limits the potential for further growth in FLPR. Addressing these challenges requires policy interventions, such as skill development programs, improved childcare support, and greater access to formal employment opportunities for women.
- Thus, while the rise in FLPR in recent years is encouraging, sustained efforts are needed to ensure that women's participation in the labour force is not only increased but also leads to better economic and social outcomes
3. Statistics on female labour force participation rate
- India's female workforce participation rate peaked at 40.8% in 2004-05 but has experienced a decline in the years since. However, beginning in 2017, the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLPR) has shown a gradual upward trend, reversing the previous decline.
- This increase has become particularly evident in the years following the COVID-19 pandemic. In rural areas, FLPR rose from 41.5% in 2022-23 to 47.6% in 2023-24, while in urban areas, it increased from 25.4% to 28% over the same period.
- The resurgence in FLPR can be attributed to the economic recovery post-lockdown, which encouraged many women who were previously not part of the workforce to seek employment.
- Additionally, economic hardships have also played a role, compelling more women to enter the labour market in search of income.
- The increasing presence of women in India’s labour force, often referred to as the feminisation of the workforce, requires a more in-depth analysis. The recent rise in FLPR has been largely driven by a surge in self-employment, particularly in agriculture.
- State-wise census data suggests that in regions where women’s participation in the workforce has increased, it is primarily due to their growing involvement in agricultural activities.
- This trend underscores a significant concern—the limited availability of non-agricultural job opportunities for women. In rural areas, employment prospects for women remain largely restricted to agricultural work, highlighting the lack of diverse and stable employment options in other sectors
4. Feminisation of agriculture
- This phenomenon results in the feminisation of agriculture, a concept that economic studies define in two primary ways. Firstly, it signifies a growing share of agricultural work being performed by women, encompassing their expanding roles as smallholder cultivators or casual agricultural wage laborers.
- Secondly, feminisation of agriculture extends beyond labour participation to women’s control and ownership of agricultural resources, as well as their involvement in key decision-making processes. This includes land ownership, land rights, and authority over farm-related choices, such as crop selection and the use of agricultural inputs like fertilizers.
- Several underlying factors have contributed to this shift. The structural transformation of India’s economy has led to a declining contribution of agriculture to the country’s GDP, with employment shifting towards the service sector.
- Additionally, economic distress in rural areas has prompted men to migrate in search of non-agricultural employment, leaving women to take on increased responsibilities in farming.
- Other contributing factors include declining agricultural productivity, rising input costs, climate-related risks, and limited employment opportunities in rural areas. Furthermore, as rural youth—especially those with formal education—aspire for non-farm jobs, male migration from villages has accelerated, placing a greater burden on women to manage agricultural activities
5. Land Ownership and Gender disparity
- The 2005 report by the National Commission on Farmers highlighted a growing trend of women engaging in agricultural activities, including land management and assisting in farm operations.
- Estimates suggest that women contribute nearly 80% of agricultural labor in India and constitute over 42% of the total agricultural workforce. Recent PLFS 2023-24 data further reveals that 76.95% of rural women are employed in agriculture, underscoring their significant role in the sector.
- Despite their extensive contributions, women in agriculture remain largely unrecognized. Findings from the 2015-16 Agriculture Census indicate that while 73% of rural female workers are involved in farming, they control only 11.72% of the total cultivated land.
- This stark contrast highlights gender inequality in land ownership and decision-making. Moreover, most female-owned landholdings are small and marginal, a consequence of historical disparities in land distribution.
- In India, women can obtain land through inheritance, gifts, purchases, or government allocations. However, these avenues often do not guarantee equal access, as financial limitations make it harder for women to buy land, leaving inheritance as a primary means of ownership. Nonetheless, social and cultural barriers continue to hinder their ability to inherit and manage land independently.
- A relevant example is the 2017 land distribution initiative in Uttar Pradesh, where 331 landless households in Mirzapur district were granted land titles. In Sirsi village, 80 titles were distributed, of which only eight went to single women, while in Karkad, out of 251 titles, just 16 were allotted to single women.
- This means that only 7% of the total land titles were allocated to single women, reflecting the persistent gender gap in land ownership. Studies emphasize that securing land rights is crucial for women’s financial stability and their ability to make independent economic decisions
6. Gender equality in agriculture's journey
- It is often emphasized that a woman’s participation in paid employment should not automatically be equated with empowerment. Many women experience a “double burden”, where they must juggle paid work alongside unpaid domestic duties and caregiving responsibilities. Similarly, merely being engaged in agricultural activities does not necessarily lead to their empowerment.
- India’s agrarian economy has been facing financial distress, with declining agricultural incomes. As a result, women’s increased participation in farming may not translate into economic empowerment, especially in the absence of stable non-agricultural job opportunities. Studies also suggest that women have limited decision-making authority over crucial aspects such as fertilizer use, household assets, and alternative sources of livelihood.
- The concept of feminisation of agriculture is frequently discussed alongside the feminisation of poverty and agrarian distress.
- As men migrate to urban areas or other sectors for better employment opportunities, women are often left with no choice but to take up farming, which is typically perceived as a less profitable livelihood option.
- Additionally, gender disparities in land ownership prevent many female farmers from accessing credit, financial resources, and government assistance. Without legal ownership of land, they struggle to qualify for schemes such as the Kisan Credit Card or the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana.
- The widespread perception of farmers as predominantly male further contributes to the marginalization of women in the agricultural sector.
- Agriculture involves more than just sowing and harvesting—it requires investment, resource management, and decision-making.
- Therefore, achieving gender equity in agriculture necessitates policies that prioritize women’s inclusion, equitable land distribution, improved access to agricultural technology, and gender-sensitive climate adaptation strategies.
- Recognizing women as central stakeholders in agriculture will be key to their economic empowerment and long-term progress
7. Way Forward
Addressing these issues requires a multi-dimensional approach that ensures equal land rights, financial inclusion, access to technology, and policy frameworks that recognize women as key agricultural stakeholders. Empowering female farmers is not just about increasing their participation in agriculture but also about providing them with the resources, rights, and recognition needed to transform their roles from laborers to decision-makers and landowners. By implementing gender-responsive agricultural policies, improving access to credit, and breaking societal stereotypes, India can move toward a more equitable and sustainable agrarian economy where women play a central and empowered role
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For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
Source: Indianexpress
DELIMITATION AND PARLIAMENT SEATS
1. Context
The Union government had introduced the Constitution (131st Amendment) Bill to increase the maximum number of Lok Sabha seats from the existing 550 to 850. It had also introduced a Bill to set up the Delimitation Commission in 2026. However, the Constitution Amendment Bill was defeated in the Lok Sabha, and thereafter, the Delimitation Bill was withdrawn by the government.
2. What is the Delimitation Exercise?
- Delimitation is the exercise of determining both the number of seats and the territorial boundaries of constituencies for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
- It is undertaken by a Delimitation Commission constituted under a law enacted by Parliament. In the past, this process has been carried out using data from the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses.
- Based on the 1971 Census, when India’s population stood at about 54.8 crore, the strength of the Lok Sabha was fixed at 543 seats.
- This figure has since been kept unchanged to promote population stabilisation efforts. Under existing constitutional provisions, a fresh readjustment is scheduled to take place after the Census to be conducted in 2027.
- Further, in 2023, Parliament enacted the 106th Constitutional Amendment, which mandates reservation of one-third of seats for women in both the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.
- This reservation is to be implemented following the delimitation exercise based on the next Census
3. 131st Amendment
- The 131st Constitutional Amendment Bill sought to introduce three major changes. First, it proposed raising the upper limit of Lok Sabha seats from 550 to 850. Second, it aimed to authorize Parliament to decide which Census would serve as the basis for delimitation.
- Third, it intended to separate the provision of one-third reservation for women from the forthcoming 2027 Census, allowing it instead to be implemented through delimitation using data from the last published Census of 2011.
- The Delimitation Bill, 2026, envisaged the periodic establishment of a Delimitation Commission by the Union government. This body would be responsible for distributing Lok Sabha seats among States and Union Territories according to the most recent Census data.
- If the Bill had been enacted and a Commission formed immediately, the seat allocation would have relied on figures from the 2011 Census
4. Issues and Criticism of the bill
- The government maintained that expanding the strength of the Lok Sabha by roughly 50%—from 543 to 816 seats—would facilitate smooth implementation of one-third reservation for women in a larger House. This would have meant reserving about 272 seats for women.
- However, the Opposition voiced several concerns. First, it argued that women’s reservation need not be tied to the delimitation exercise, since the 106th Constitutional Amendment of 2023 already permits one-third reservation within the existing 543 seats.
- Second, the proposed Bills did not clearly ensure a proportional 50% increase in seats for every State and Union Territory; instead, the Delimitation Bill suggested that seat allocation would depend on population figures from the latest Census.
- Third, the Opposition emphasized that an issue of such significance and sensitivity requires thorough deliberation and should not be hurried through during a short parliamentary session
5. Way Forward
Democracy signifies governance by the people, where representatives are chosen on the foundational principle of “one citizen–one vote–one value.” However, this principle was moderated in 1976, when delimitation was frozen on the basis of the 1971 Census to support population control efforts. In a federal system like India’s, any future delimitation exercise must account for the uneven population growth among different States.
Article 81(2) of the Constitution states that, as far as possible, the ratio of seats to population should remain uniform across States. While a proportional 50% increase in seats may serve as a compromise between democratic representation and federal balance, it would be prudent to examine such a proposal more thoroughly through parliamentary committee deliberations. At the same time, a pressing reform in India’s democratic framework is the strengthening of local self-governments, such as Panchayats and Municipalities, which interact closely with citizens in their everyday lives
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For Prelims: Delimitation, Census, Covid-19 Pandemic, Article 82, Article 170 For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the potential conflict between the principle of "one citizen-one vote" and the freezing of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 Census in the context of delimitation. Discuss how this can impact federalism and representation in India. (250 Words)
2. How can the delimitation exercise be conducted in a manner that fosters national integration and strengthens the federal structure of India? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
5. The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to (UPSC 2015)
A. protect the interests of the Scheduled Tribes
B. determine the boundaries between States
C. determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
D. protect the interests of all the border States
Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A
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Source: The Hindu
SILVER ECONOMY
1. Context
India isn’t ageing yet. We are still a young country, with more than half our population under 25, and about 65 per cent under 35. But some of our states are ageing — and Kerala leads the way.
2. What is the concept of Silver Economy?
- The Silver Economy refers to the part of the economy that is shaped by the needs, aspirations, and economic participation of older people, especially senior citizens and the ageing population. The word silver symbolically comes from the silver or grey hair associated with old age.
- In simple terms, it is the entire ecosystem of goods, services, jobs, technologies, and policies that revolve around people in the later stages of life.
- It is not just about healthcare or pensions. Rather, it covers everything that helps older people live longer, healthier, more independent, and economically active lives.
- To understand it in an explanatory way, imagine a society where the proportion of elderly people is steadily increasing because people are living longer and birth rates are falling.
- This demographic shift changes the nature of demand in the economy. Older people need age-friendly housing, better healthcare, assisted living services, insurance products, medicines, financial planning, rehabilitation support, travel packages designed for seniors, digital tools that are easy to use, and even leisure and wellness services.
- All the industries that respond to these needs together form the silver economy.
- For example, when companies design smart watches that monitor heart rate and falls, or when hospitals expand geriatric care, or when banks create pension investment plans specifically for retired people, these are all part of the silver economy.
- Even sectors like tourism and transport become part of it when they create senior-friendly services such as easy boarding, medical assistance, and comfortable travel packages.
- But the concept goes beyond consumption. It also recognizes that elderly people are not merely dependents; they are also contributors to economic growth.
- Many senior citizens continue to work, invest, mentor younger generations, start businesses, or participate in the service sector. Their experience, skills, and purchasing power make them an important economic force.
- Modern policy discussions increasingly see ageing not as a burden alone, but as an opportunity for innovation, employment generation, and market expansion.
- A very important aspect of the silver economy is technology for ageing populations, sometimes called gerontechnology.
- This includes medical devices, AI-based caregiving tools, mobility aids, telemedicine, home automation systems, and robotic assistance for elderly care. Such innovations not only improve quality of life but also open new markets and industries
3. What are the merits and demerits in the Silver Economy?
- The Silver Economy has both strong advantages and serious challenges. To explain it in a flowing way rather than points, think of it as a double-edged economic transformation caused by an ageing population.
- The first major merit is that it creates new markets and economic opportunities. As the number of elderly people increases, demand rises for healthcare, medicines, medical devices, insurance, assisted living, age-friendly housing, tourism, and digital services.
- This demand encourages innovation and investment, leading to new industries such as geriatric healthcare, telemedicine, mobility aids, and senior-focused financial products. In many countries, this has become a major source of economic growth and job creation.
- Another important merit is that it recognizes senior citizens as active contributors rather than dependents. Older people today often remain healthy and skilled for a longer period of life.
- Many continue to work, mentor younger generations, invest savings, or start small businesses after retirement. Their experience and accumulated wealth can contribute significantly to productivity and consumption in the economy. This helps change the traditional view that ageing is only a burden.
- The silver economy also promotes social inclusion and better quality of life. When governments and businesses focus on elderly needs, it leads to better healthcare infrastructure, improved public transport, senior-friendly urban design, and digital accessibility. This improves dignity, independence, and social participation for older people.
- However, the demerits are equally significant. One major drawback is the pressure on public finances. An ageing population means higher expenditure on pensions, healthcare, old-age care, and social security.
- If the working-age population shrinks while the elderly population grows, governments may face fiscal stress because fewer workers are supporting a larger retired population through taxes.
- A second challenge is the dependency burden on the workforce. When more people retire and fewer young people enter the labour market, the dependency ratio rises.
- This can slow economic growth, reduce labour supply, and put stress on productivity unless supported by technology and policy reforms.
- Another demerit, especially in countries like India, is the unequal access to silver economy benefits. Urban areas may get advanced hospitals, insurance, and senior services, while rural elderly populations may remain excluded because of poor infrastructure, digital illiteracy, and lack of pension coverage
4. What is the population status of the elderly in India?
- Kerala’s ageing population is no longer a distant demographic possibility but an ongoing and significant shift that is reshaping the state’s social structure. What was once seen as a future trend has now become an immediate reality with wide-ranging implications.
- By the close of 2026, individuals aged 60 years and above are expected to constitute nearly 20 per cent of Kerala’s population, substantially higher than the national average of around 12 per cent.
- Interestingly, this demographic transition is largely the result of Kerala’s long-standing achievements in the fields of healthcare and education, which have contributed to higher life expectancy and declining birth rates.
- However, the existing social support systems and healthcare infrastructure are not adequately prepared to meet the complex and specialised needs of an ageing society. This concern becomes even more serious as older persons increasingly face rising medical expenses, chronic illnesses, and financial insecurity.
- To effectively respond to this emerging “silver sunrise,” Kerala needs to shift from short-term, reactive responses to a long-term strategy that redesigns both its economy and urban spaces in line with the realities of an ageing population.
- If handled effectively, the state can emerge as a model for the rest of India, especially as demographic ageing gradually becomes a national phenomenon in the coming decades.
- Kerala is uniquely positioned to convert what is often viewed as a demographic challenge into a major economic opportunity.
- The state has often been informally described as an “ageing society” because of significant youth migration to other states and countries, leaving behind a relatively older population.
- To turn this challenge into a sustainable driver of growth, Kerala must adopt a multi-layered policy approach to ageing, one that encourages private sector involvement while safeguarding principles of social justice and inclusiveness.
- This would require moving beyond a purely welfare-oriented approach and embracing a silver economy framework, where elderly care and related services are developed as a high-value and growth-oriented sector.
- In this context, Kerala’s natural geography offers a major advantage. Its tranquil coastal belts and the cool, misty, climate-friendly landscapes of the Western Ghats provide ideal locations for developing high-quality retirement communities.
- Such spaces can serve not only the local elderly population but also attract members of the Indian diaspora and international retirees seeking peaceful living environments
5. What Reforms are Needed to Strengthen India’s Silver Economy?
- Strengthening India’s Silver Economy requires a shift from seeing ageing merely as a welfare concern to treating it as a strategic pillar of economic growth, social justice, and human development.
- Since India’s elderly population is expected to rise sharply in the coming decades, reforms must focus on making older persons healthier, financially secure, socially included, and economically productive.
- The first and most urgent reform lies in healthcare transformation. India needs a dedicated geriatric healthcare ecosystem rather than treating elderly care as an extension of general medicine.
- This means expanding geriatric wards in district hospitals, strengthening home-based care, promoting telemedicine, and ensuring regular screening for chronic illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and dementia.
- Integrating elderly care into Ayushman Bharat and Ayushman Arogya Mandirs would significantly reduce out-of-pocket expenditure and improve access, especially in rural areas.
- A second major reform is financial security and pension expansion. A large proportion of India’s workforce is employed in the informal sector and reaches old age without adequate savings or social protection.
- Therefore, pension schemes such as the Atal Pension Yojana need wider coverage, higher awareness, and better contribution flexibility.
- Insurance products specifically designed for senior citizens, including long-term care and assisted-living coverage, must also be promoted so that old age does not translate into financial vulnerability.
- Another important reform is to create employment opportunities for senior citizens. Many elderly persons remain physically and mentally capable of working but face age-based discrimination and lack of flexible jobs.
- India should encourage part-time work, consultancy roles, mentoring positions, digital freelancing, and re-skilling programmes through platforms such as the SACRED Portal. This will help seniors remain economically independent while also allowing the economy to benefit from their experience and knowledge.
- India also needs reforms in the care economy and skill development sector. A rapidly ageing population requires trained caregivers, physiotherapists, geriatric nurses, and counsellors.
- The recent push to train caregivers is a step in the right direction, but it must be scaled up through vocational institutions and skill missions. This not only supports elderly care but also creates employment for youth, especially women, thereby generating a “double dividend.”
- Urban planning reforms are equally important. India’s cities and towns need to become age-friendly spaces with barrier-free public transport, accessible footpaths, senior-friendly housing, emergency response systems, and community day-care centres. Such reforms are essential for preserving dignity and independent living among senior citizens.
- Finally, India should promote innovation and private investment in elder-tech. Startups working in remote health monitoring, fall-detection devices, smart homes, assistive robotics, and retirement communities should receive policy incentives, tax support, and regulatory clarity. This would help transform the silver economy into a major growth sector
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development
For Mains: General Studies I: population and associated issues
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements with reference to Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): (UPSC CSE, 2008)
1. All persons of 60 years or above belonging to the households below poverty line in rural areas are eligible. 2. The Central Assistance under this Scheme is at the rate of `300 per month per beneficiary. Under the Scheme, States have been urged to give matching amounts. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (d)
2.Consider the following statements with reference to Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): (2008)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (d) |
Source: Indianexpress
