DELIMITATION EXERCISE
1. Context
All States will have their number of Lok Sabha seats increase by half after delimitation, and no State will lose its current proportional strength in Parliament, a senior government functionary told The Hindu on Wednesday.
2. About delimitation
- Delimitation refers to the process of determining the number of seats and defining the boundaries of electoral constituencies for the Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies.
- It also involves allocating seats specifically reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) within these legislative bodies.
- As outlined in Articles 82 and 170 of the Constitution, the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, as well as the demarcation of constituencies, is subject to adjustment following each Census.
- This delimitation process is overseen by a Delimitation Commission established by an act of Parliament.
- Such redistricting exercises have historically occurred following the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses.
3. Constitutional Requirements and Current Status
- The constitutional requirement for democratic governance stipulates that the government should be elected by the people, with the principle of 'one citizen-one vote-one value' being paramount.
- Historically, the number of seats in the Lok Sabha was determined based on population figures from the 1951, 1961, and 1971 Censuses, resulting in an average population per seat of 7.3 lahks, 8.4 lahks, and 10.1 lahks respectively.
- However, since the 1971 Census, the number of seats has been frozen to incentivize population control measures, ensuring that states with higher population growth do not gain disproportionately higher representation.
- This freeze was initially implemented through the 42nd Amendment Act until the year 2000 and extended by the 84th Amendment Act until 2026.
- Consequently, seat allocation is based on the population figures from the 1971 Census, with adjustments slated to occur following the first Census after 2026.
- Ordinarily, the delimitation process, including determining the number of seats, defining territorial constituency boundaries, and allocating reserved seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), would align with the Census of 2031, being the first Census post-2026.
- However, with the postponement of the 2021 Census and the approach of the year 2026, discussions are underway regarding the impending delimitation exercise.
5. International Practices in Seat Allocation
- In the United States, the number of seats in the House of Representatives, akin to India's Lok Sabha, has remained fixed at 435 since 1913. Despite the population increase from 9.4 crore in 1911 to an estimated 33.4 crore in 2023, the method of equal proportion is utilized to redistribute seats among states following each Census. This method aims to maintain fairness, ensuring that no significant gain or loss occurs for any state. For instance, after the 2020 Census, 37 states saw no change in their number of seats, while Texas gained two seats, five states gained one seat each, and seven states lost one seat each.
- In the European Union Parliament, comprised of 720 members, seat allocation among its 27 member countries follows the principle of degressive proportionality. This principle entails that the ratio of population to the number of seats increases as population size increases. For example, Denmark, with a population of around 60 lahks, has 15 seats (with an average population of 4 lahks per member), while Germany, with a population of 8.3 crores, has 96 seats (with an average population of 8.6 lahks per member).
6. Proposed Ideal Solution
- The dilemma between democratic and federal principles in delimitation can be effectively addressed by striking a balance that acknowledges the significance of both. A harmonious solution can be achieved by giving equal weight to democratic representation and federal structure.
- The number of Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Lok Sabha could be capped at the current level of 543 seats. This ensures continuity in representation from various states, thereby upholding the federal principle. MPs primarily legislate on matters listed in the Union List, such as Defense, External Affairs, Railways, Telecommunication, and Taxation, and hold the Central government accountable.
- To meet democratic representational requirements, the number of Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in each state can be increased in alignment with the current population. This adjustment can be made without altering the number of seats in the Rajya Sabha, thereby addressing the need for fair representation at the state level.
- Crucially, to strengthen democracy at the grassroots level, empowering local bodies like panchayats and municipalities is imperative. These entities engage directly with citizens on a daily basis and play a vital role in governance. Significant devolution of powers and finances to these bodies is essential to enhance democracy at the grassroots level, ensuring effective citizen participation in decision-making processes.
7. The Way Forward
Finding a balanced approach to delimitation that considers democratic representation, federal stability, and local governance empowerment is crucial for India's future. This proposed solution offers a starting point for discussion and debate to ensure a fair and effective delimitation process that strengthens the nation's democracy.
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For Prelims: Delimitation, Census, Covid-19 Pandemic, Article 82, Article 170 For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the potential conflict between the principle of "one citizen-one vote" and the freezing of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 Census in the context of delimitation. Discuss how this can impact federalism and representation in India. (250 Words)
2. How can the delimitation exercise be conducted in a manner that fosters national integration and strengthens the federal structure of India? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
5. The provisions in Fifth Schedule and Sixth Schedule in the Constitution of India are made in order to (UPSC 2015)
A. protect the interests of the Scheduled Tribes
B. determine the boundaries between States
C. determine the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
D. protect the interests of all the border States
Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A
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Source: The Hindu
STRAIT OF HORMUZ
1. Context
Since late February, the Strait of Hormuz has emerged as the centre of a deepening energy and security crisis. The escalation followed U.S. and Israeli strikes on Iran, after which Tehran tightened restrictions on the narrow waterway. The situation intensified further this week when President Donald Trump ordered a U.S. naval blockade of vessels sailing to or from Iranian ports.
2. What is the Strait of Hormuz?
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The Strait of Hormuz is a strategically significant and narrow maritime passage situated between Iran and Oman, serving as a link between the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has labeled it as the world’s most vital oil transit chokepoint, through which nearly 20% of global liquid petroleum fuels and a substantial portion of LNG trade pass. In May, more than 45% of India’s crude oil imports were estimated to have transited through this strait. Given that India is the third-largest consumer of crude oil globally and imports over 85% of its oil needs, the strait plays a crucial role in its energy security.
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Data from the commodity analytics firm Kpler indicates that, as of June, India has been importing over 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) of crude oil from Russia, which constitutes more than 41% of its total oil imports.
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While oil imports from the U.S. have shown a steady rise, supplies from West Asian nations such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait have remained relatively consistent. Many of these shipments were likely planned prior to the recent escalation in tensions between Israel and Iran, and therefore, may not reflect the impact of the current geopolitical developments.
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Over the past two to three years, India has notably adjusted its oil import strategy. Russia has emerged as India’s top crude supplier, overtaking traditional exporters from West Asia. Importantly, Russian oil bypasses the Strait of Hormuz, as it is mainly transported via alternative sea routes like the Suez Canal and Red Sea, and sometimes through the Cape of Good Hope or Pacific Ocean routes.
3.Why is Strait of Hormuz Critical?
- The Strait of Hormuz is commonly considered the most critical maritime chokepoint in the world. It links the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean, serving as a major export corridor for regional oil producers.
- At its narrowest point, it measures only about 21 nautical miles (38 km) across. Under typical conditions, nearly 21 million barrels of oil—around one-fifth of global consumption—flow through it daily.
- Alongside crude oil, substantial quantities of liquefied natural gas from Qatar and the UAE are transported via this passage.
- A significant share, close to 80%, is destined for Asian markets, making countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea heavily reliant on this route.
4. Other Major Global Chokepoints
- Apart from Hormuz, international trade depends on a few other strategically vital maritime passages, including the Strait of Malacca, Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Suez Canal, and Panama Canal.
- The Strait of Malacca lies between the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia’s Sumatra island and represents the shortest maritime route connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. This makes it indispensable for trade flows linking West Asia, Africa, and East Asia.
- The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is positioned between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa.
- It serves as the southern entrance to the Red Sea, a necessary transit point for vessels heading toward the Suez Canal and onward to the Mediterranean, thereby forming a crucial segment of Asia–Europe trade routes.
- The Suez Canal, a man-made channel across Egypt, connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, significantly reducing travel time by eliminating the need to circumnavigate Africa.
- Further west, the Panama Canal cuts through the Isthmus of Panama, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strategic shortcut facilitates trade between Asia, the Americas, and Europe, removing the necessity of sailing around South America
5. Why is the Strait of Hormuz strategically important for India?
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India’s current oil procurement approach already demonstrates a diversified and risk-mitigated strategy, especially in light of uncertainties in West Asian oil routes, with Russian crude now making up the largest share of India’s import basket.
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After recent U.S. air strikes targeting Iranian nuclear sites, Iran’s parliament passed a resolution on Sunday advocating the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital corridor for global oil transportation. The final decision on this move now lies with Iran’s Supreme National Security Council.
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Although Iran has repeatedly issued threats in the past to shut the strait, it has never acted on them. Even in the present context, industry analysts consider the likelihood of an actual blockade to be low. Nevertheless, the increased risk perception surrounding the potential closure is expected to trigger global alarm, including in India, by raising concerns over the security of oil and gas supplies and potentially driving up global energy prices.
6. How does the Israel-Iran conflict pose a threat to global oil and gas flows?
- The Israel-Iran conflict poses a significant threat to global oil and gas flows due to the geopolitical sensitivity and strategic location of the region. At the heart of this issue lies the Strait of Hormuz—a narrow but crucial maritime passage through which nearly 20% of the world’s petroleum and a substantial share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are transported.
- Iran borders this strait and has, over the years, repeatedly threatened to block it during periods of heightened tension, including in response to military actions or sanctions.
- When hostilities between Israel and Iran escalate—such as through air strikes, proxy conflicts, or cyber warfare—it increases the likelihood of retaliation from Iran that could involve disrupting maritime traffic in the Strait of Hormuz.
- Even if Iran does not fully close the strait, the mere threat or perception of such an action is enough to cause volatility in global energy markets. Tanker insurance rates rise, shipping routes are reconsidered, and countries heavily dependent on oil imports, like India, become increasingly vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks.
- Furthermore, any military conflict in this region risks damaging key infrastructure such as refineries, pipelines, or export terminals in the broader West Asian region.
- This would constrain oil production and distribution, affecting both the availability and price of crude oil and gas worldwide. Global markets respond quickly to these risks, often resulting in immediate spikes in prices due to concerns over supply security.
- In summary, the Israel-Iran conflict amplifies the risk to global oil and gas flows by potentially destabilizing a region that is central to global energy supply chains. It heightens fears of supply disruptions, increases market speculation, and threatens the economic stability of energy-importing countries, making it a matter of both geopolitical and economic concern
7. Way Forward
The flow of vessels through major international chokepoints is largely regulated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. According to its provisions, straits that are used for global navigation fall under the concept of “transit passage,” which permits ships and aircraft from all countries to move through them freely, continuously, and without interference.
At the same time, coastal states bordering these straits are allowed to introduce regulations related to safety or environmental protection. However, they are not permitted to block passage or apply discriminatory restrictions on specific vessels. While this freedom of navigation is widely accepted in international law, its practical implementation often depends on the naval capabilities of states and the level of cooperation among them
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For Prelims: Strait of Hormuz, Persian Gulf, Energy Information Administration (EIA), liquefied natural gas (LNG)
For Mains: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Malacca Strait (b) Bering Strait (c) Strait of Florida (d) Strait of Gibraltar Answer (b) The International Date Line (IDL) roughly follows the 180° longitude, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, deviating slightly to accommodate international boundaries. The Bering Strait lies between Russia and Alaska, and it is very close to the 180° meridian, making it the closest strait to the International Date Line. Here's why the other options are incorrect:
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Source: Indianexpress
RIGHT TO VOTE
1. Context
The Supreme Court on Monday (April 13) refused interim relief to over 34 lakh appellants whose names were excluded from electoral rolls in West Bengal following the SIR exercise. Thus, the petitioners will not be able to cast their vote in the upcoming Assembly elections in the state while their appeals remain pending before tribunals.
2. Background of the latest Controversy
- Electoral rolls in India are regularly updated by the Election Commission to ensure that all eligible citizens are included and ineligible names (such as those of deceased individuals or people who have moved away) are removed. Usually, this happens through Annual Summary Revisions.
- However, sometimes, a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is conducted, particularly when there are reports of major discrepancies in the electoral rolls or if there have been significant demographic changes.
- In Bihar, the Election Commission of India (ECI) ordered a Special Intensive Revision of the voter list, which involved house-to-house verification by booth-level officers (BLOs). This revision began in June 2024 and was set to continue till August, with the final roll expected to be published later
- The revision has been ordered after the conclusion of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections and just months before the scheduled 2025 Bihar Assembly elections. Opposition parties, particularly the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), have raised concerns that the exercise might be used to manipulate voter lists in a way that could favor the ruling party at the state or central level.
- Opposition leaders and civil society groups have warned that the SIR could result in mass deletion of voters, especially among marginalised communities like Dalits, minorities, and migrant labourers who might not be present at home during the verification period.
- These groups are often the most vulnerable during such exercises due to lack of documentation or frequent change of residence.
Supreme Court response
- On July 10, the Supreme Court instructed the Election Commission (EC) to accept Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as valid identity documents for the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.
- The Court also scheduled the next hearing on the group of petitions challenging the EC’s move for July 28. In doing so, the Court emphasized that the 'right to vote' lies at the heart of India’s democratic structure, drawing national attention to the core mechanisms behind the country’s electoral system and the origin of its policy of universal adult suffrage (UAS).
- India’s approach to the right to vote, as enshrined in its Constitution, stands in marked contrast to the historical trajectory seen in many Western nations. Influenced by thinkers such as J.S. Mill, who argued that voting should be reserved for the “educated” and denied to the “uninformed,” several countries began with a highly exclusive franchise.
- For instance, in the United Kingdom, voting was initially limited to male property holders. It wasn't until 1918 that all men gained voting rights, and women had to wait until 1928 to be included.
- Similarly, in the United States, while constitutional amendments—the 15th in 1870 and the 19th in 1920—technically extended voting rights to African Americans and women respectively, practical obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests kept many citizens disenfranchised for decades
3. Universal Adult Suffrage in India
- Unlike many other countries that took a gradual approach to granting voting rights—often limiting them to elite sections and undergoing long, sometimes violent struggles—India adopted a bold and inclusive strategy from the very beginning.
- Instead of restricting suffrage, India chose universal adult franchise at the time of independence, embracing the principle of democratic equality from the outset. Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guaranteed every adult citizen the right to vote, regardless of their gender, caste, religion, education, or economic status.
- This was a progressive move, especially when compared to other nations that were still cautiously expanding voting rights. Initially, the voting age was set at 21, but it was later lowered to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment in 1989.
- The nation’s strong commitment to inclusive democracy was further underlined by several landmark Supreme Court rulings, starting with the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in 1973, which declared democracy a core feature of the Constitution’s ‘basic structure’.
- For democracy to thrive, it is essential that citizens retain the unchallenged right to choose their government freely—an essential pillar that must remain inviolable.
- This vision of inclusivity was implemented through two foundational laws: the Representation of the People Act of 1950, which oversees the creation and updating of electoral rolls, and the 1951 Act, which deals with the conduct of elections, eligibility of candidates, and electoral offences.
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) has consistently worked to fulfil this constitutional promise by introducing several administrative reforms. A notable example is the innovation introduced by Sukumar Sen, India’s first Chief Election Commissioner.
- Faced with the enormous task of registering 173 million mostly illiterate voters, he introduced the use of visual symbols for political parties—transforming a logistical challenge into a democratic milestone.
- In India, the ECI bears the crucial responsibility of ensuring that every eligible citizen, no matter how remote their location, can exercise their right to vote. As Winston Churchill aptly put it, “At the bottom of all tributes paid to democracy is the little man, walking into a little booth, with a little pencil, making a little cross on a little bit of paper…” His words serve as a powerful reminder that the legitimacy of any democracy ultimately hinges on protecting and upholding the sanctity of the vote
4. Is Voting a Fundamental right in India?
- The nature of the ‘right to vote’ in India has been a topic of legal and constitutional debate for decades. During the framing of the Constitution, both Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and K.T. Shah had advocated for its inclusion as a fundamental right.
- However, the Constituent Assembly’s Advisory Committee ultimately decided against this proposal. This position was later affirmed by the Supreme Court in the Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India case (2006), where a Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘right to elect’ is not a fundamental or constitutional right, but rather a statutory one derived from Section 62 of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951.
- Although a two-judge bench in Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2016) referred to voting as a constitutional right, the earlier and more authoritative decision in Kuldip Nayar remains the guiding precedent.
- Again, in the 2023 Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court refrained from revisiting this issue, reaffirming that it had already been conclusively addressed in the Kuldip Nayar ruling.
- Justice Ajay Rastogi, however, in a dissenting opinion, argued that the right to vote stems from Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution (freedom of expression) and embodies the spirit of Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).
- Despite his reasoning, this remains a minority viewpoint, and under current jurisprudence, voting continues to be classified as a statutory entitlement.
- Still, courts have consistently emphasised that, even if not fundamental in a legal sense, the right to vote is deeply embedded in the democratic framework of the country.
- It serves as a vital mechanism through which citizens participate in governance and decision-making, making it essential to the functioning and legitimacy of the Indian Republic.
- As philosopher John Dewey aptly observed, democracy extends beyond a governmental system—it represents a broader social and ethical ideal
5. Significance of accuracy of electoral roll
- The foundation of free and fair elections lies in the accuracy of electoral rolls, as mandated by the Representation of the People Act, 1950. When these rolls contain significant flaws—such as widespread omissions, inclusion of ineligible individuals, duplicate entries, or factual errors—it threatens the principle of “one person, one vote.”
- Such discrepancies open the door to impersonation, voter exclusion, or vote dilution, ultimately skewing the democratic verdict.
- To maintain the credibility of the electoral process, Section 21 of the 1950 Act grants the Election Commission (EC) the authority to compile and update electoral rolls as necessary.
- Although errors in voter lists are sometimes inevitable, the judiciary has consistently maintained that only major, systematic flaws that have a tangible impact on election results can call the validity of an election into question.
- Minor irregularities or isolated cases of disenfranchisement are not sufficient grounds for overturning results. Allegations of errors, such as those recently reported in Bihar, merit investigation.
- At the same time, it's important to recognise that cleansing voter rolls is essential—excluding a rightful voter weakens democracy, but so does allowing someone who is ineligible to remain on the list.
- Therefore, rather than obstructing the process, attention should be directed toward strengthening and refining it. The Supreme Court’s recommendation to accept a broader range of identity documents helps ensure that all legitimate voters retain their right to participate in elections.
- While the legal right to challenge or seek inclusion in the electoral rolls rests with individual citizens rather than political parties, the Supreme Court in Lakshmi Charan Sen v. A.K.M. Hassan Uzzaman (1985) emphasised that in a society with widespread illiteracy and limited political awareness, political parties have a responsibility to assist in ensuring that eligible voters are registered and ineligible names are removed.
- In a party-driven parliamentary system like India’s, such proactive engagement is essential for maintaining the credibility and integrity of elections
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Qualification for an Ordinary resident
Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission (EC) acts as the constitutional authority responsible for overseeing and managing the electoral process. One of its fundamental responsibilities is the preparation of reliable electoral rolls. This task is carried out in accordance with Section 19 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which stipulates that every Indian citizen who is at least 18 years old, ordinarily resides in a particular constituency, and is not otherwise disqualified, is eligible for registration as a voter. The term “ordinarily resident” refers to someone who has a genuine and continuous presence in a location, rather than a brief or temporary stay. For instance, a student residing in a hostel may not meet the criteria if their permanent residence is elsewhere and they intend to return there. However, simply being away from one’s usual place of residence temporarily does not disqualify someone from being considered an ordinary resident of that place. This standard helps prevent fake or misleading entries in the voter list and ensures that electors have a meaningful connection to the constituency they vote in, thereby reinforcing the principle of accountable and representative democracy |
6. Way forward
The controversy surrounding the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Bihar and the wider discussions on electoral reforms underscore a fundamental principle of democracy: the strength of India’s democratic system relies on electoral rolls that are precise, inclusive, and easy to access. As the Supreme Court prepares to continue hearings on July 28, it is essential for the Election Commission to carry out the revision exercise with both diligence and inclusivity, ensuring the process remains fair and credible.
At the same time, it is crucial for citizens to be made aware of their role in the process—by checking and correcting their voter information, they become active participants in safeguarding electoral accuracy. Protecting the right to vote goes beyond fulfilling a legal mandate; it is a collective democratic duty that demands alert institutions, engaged and informed citizens, and progressive legal frameworks
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India (ECI), Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951
For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019)
North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala
B.Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland
C.Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa
D.Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur
Answer (B)
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Source: The Hindu
SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
1. Context
Calling the right to vote the “biggest expression of nationality and patriotism…in a democratic government”, the Supreme Court Monday raised questions on the exclusion of voters in the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in West Bengal and flagged concerns over deletions in the context of winning margins.
2. What is the Special Intensive Revision?
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
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During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
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3. Election Commission of India, its powers and functions
- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
4. How is SIR different from the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
5. What are the concerns related to SIR?
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
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Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
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Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
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Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
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This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
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Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
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Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
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Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
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Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
6. Way Forward
While the Special Intensive Revision is essential for ensuring clean and updated electoral rolls, its effectiveness depends on transparent procedures, proper training, digital accuracy, and public awareness.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
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For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
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Source: Indianexpress
CURRENCY DEPRECIATION
1. Context
For many emerging and developed markets alike, the reality of a currency in freefall is not a boom in exports, but often a harsh blow to purchasing power and investor confidence.
2. What is Currency depreciation?
Currency depreciation refers to the decrease in the value of a country's currency in relation to other currencies in the foreign exchange market. It means that the purchasing power of the currency decreases compared to other currencies, leading to higher prices for imported goods and services.
Currency depreciation can occur due to various factors, including:
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Supply and demand: If the demand for a currency decreases relative to its supply in the foreign exchange market, its value may depreciate. Factors such as changes in trade balances, capital flows, and interest rates can influence supply and demand dynamics.
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Inflation differentials: If a country experiences higher inflation rates compared to its trading partners, its currency may depreciate as the purchasing power of the currency decreases relative to other currencies.
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Economic performance: Weak economic indicators, such as low growth rates, high unemployment, or large fiscal deficits, can lead to a loss of confidence in a country's currency, causing it to depreciate.
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Political instability: Political uncertainty or instability in a country can undermine investor confidence and lead to capital outflows, putting pressure on the currency to depreciate.
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Speculative activities: Speculators may engage in trading activities that anticipate currency depreciation, exacerbating downward pressure on the currency's value
3. What do you understand by Rupee depreciation?
Rupee depreciation refers specifically to the decline in the value of the Indian rupee (INR) in relation to other major currencies, such as the US dollar (USD), euro (EUR), or British pound (GBP), in the foreign exchange market. It signifies that the purchasing power of the Indian rupee decreases relative to other currencies, resulting in higher prices for imported goods and services.
Rupee depreciation can occur due to a variety of factors, including:
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Trade imbalances: Persistent trade deficits, where imports exceed exports, can put downward pressure on the rupee as more foreign currency is required to pay for imports.
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Capital outflows: If foreign investors sell Indian assets or withdraw investments from the country, it can lead to a decrease in demand for the rupee, causing its value to depreciate.
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Interest rate differentials: Higher interest rates in other countries can attract foreign investors away from Indian assets, leading to a decrease in demand for the rupee and its depreciation.
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Inflation differentials: Higher inflation rates in India compared to other countries can erode the purchasing power of the rupee, leading to depreciation.
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Global economic factors: Events such as changes in global oil prices, geopolitical tensions, or shifts in investor sentiment towards emerging markets can also impact the value of the rupee
4. Appreciation vs Depreciation of Currency-Compare and Contrast
| Subject | Appreciation of Currency | Depreciation of Currency |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Increase in the value of a currency relative to other currencies. | Decrease in the value of a currency relative to other currencies. |
| Effect on Imports | Imports become cheaper. | Imports become more expensive. |
| Effect on Exports | Exports become more expensive for foreign buyers. | Exports become cheaper for foreign buyers. |
| Trade Balance | May lead to a trade deficit as exports become less competitive. | May lead to a trade surplus as exports become more competitive. |
| Inflation | May contribute to deflationary pressures as imported goods become cheaper. | May contribute to inflationary pressures as imported goods become more expensive. |
| Interest Rates | May lead to lower interest rates as a stronger currency reduces inflationary pressures. | May lead to higher interest rates as a weaker currency increases inflationary pressures. |
| Foreign Investment | May discourage foreign investment as returns become less attractive. | May encourage foreign investment as returns become more attractive. |
| Domestic Production | May discourage domestic production as exports become less competitive. | May encourage domestic production as imports become more expensive. |
| External Debt Burden | May increase the cost of servicing external debt denominated in foreign currencies. | May decrease the cost of servicing external debt denominated in foreign currencies. |
| Purchasing Power | Increases the purchasing power of domestic consumers and businesses. | Decreases the purchasing power of domestic consumers and businesses. |
| Government Policy Response | Central banks may intervene to prevent excessive appreciation through measures such as foreign exchange interventions. | Central banks may intervene to stabilize the currency or support exports through measures such as interest rate adjustments or currency interventions. |
5. What is the difference between depreciation and devaluation?
| Subject | Depreciation | Devaluation |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Decrease in the value of a currency in the foreign exchange market due to market forces. | Deliberate and official decrease in the value of a country's currency by the government or central bank. |
| Cause | Market forces such as changes in supply and demand, economic conditions, or investor sentiment. | Implemented by the government or central bank to address economic challenges or achieve specific objectives. |
| Effect | Affects the exchange rate of a currency relative to other currencies, making imports more expensive and exports more competitive. | Affects the exchange rate of a currency in the foreign exchange market, making imports more expensive and exports more competitive. |
| Economic Implications | Can influence trade balances, inflation, interest rates, and economic growth. | Can influence trade balances, inflation, interest rates, and economic growth. |
| Policy Response | Central banks may intervene to stabilize the currency or address excessive depreciation through measures such as foreign exchange interventions or monetary policy adjustments. | Deliberate policy action undertaken by the government or central bank, which may involve announcing changes in the official exchange rate, adjusting monetary policy measures, or implementing structural reforms. |
6.Way Forward
Between April-end 2014 and now – roughly the time the Narendra Modi government has been in office – the rupee has depreciated by 27.6% against the US dollar, from Rs 60.34 to Rs 83.38. That’s marginally higher than the 26.5% from April-end 2004 to April-end 2014: The rupee fell from 44.37 to 60.34 to the dollar during that period when the previous Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) was in power
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.
For Mains: GS-III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following is not the most likely measure the Government/RBI takes to stop the slide of the Indian rupee? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Curbing imports of non-essential goods and promoting exports (b) Encouraging Indian borrowers to issue rupee-denominated Masala Bonds (c) Easing conditions relating to external commercial borrowing (d) Following an expansionary monetary policy Answer (d) The option that is not the most likely measure the Government/RBI takes to stop the slide of the Indian rupee is: (d) Following an expansionary monetary policy An expansionary monetary policy involves increasing the money supply and lowering interest rates to stimulate economic growth. While this policy may indirectly influence the value of the rupee, it is not typically used as a direct measure to stop the slide of the currency. In fact, an expansionary monetary policy may potentially contribute to further depreciation of the rupee if it leads to capital outflows or inflationary pressures. The other options, (a), (b), and (c), are more directly related to measures that the Government/RBI may take to address currency depreciation, such as curbing imports, promoting exports, encouraging rupee-denominated bonds, and easing conditions for external commercial borrowing |
Source: Indianexpress
EL NINO AND MONSOON
1. Context
The country is expected to receive ‘below normal’ rainfall in this year’s monsoon season, with a developing El Nino, a phenomenon in the eastern Pacific Ocean that influences global weather patterns, likely to play spoilsport, the India Meteorological Department said on Monday.
2. Key takeaways
- The monsoon rains have helped to improve crop yields, which has led to higher production and incomes for farmers.
- This has also helped to reduce food prices and improve food security in India.
- The monsoon rains are a welcome respite for India, which has been hit by several droughts in recent years.
- The good rains have helped to improve the lives of millions of farmers and their families and have boosted the Indian economy.
3. La Nina Brings Bountiful Rainfall to India
- La Nina is a climate pattern that occurs every few years when the central and eastern Pacific Ocean cools.
- This cooling leads to changes in the atmosphere, including stronger trade winds and increased evaporation.
- These changes can lead to increased rainfall in India, which is why the country has experienced four consecutive years of good monsoons since 2019.
- La Nina is caused by a natural cycle of ocean and atmospheric changes. The cycle is called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
- During La Nina, the trade winds blow stronger than usual, which pushes warm water away from the western Pacific Ocean and towards the east. This leaves the eastern Pacific Ocean cooler than usual.
- The cooler water in the eastern Pacific Ocean leads to increased evaporation, which creates more clouds and rain.
- The monsoon rains have helped to improve crop yields and boost agricultural production in India.
- This has led to higher incomes for farmers and reduced food prices for consumers.
- The good rains have also helped to improve food security in India by reducing the risk of drought and famine.
- The La Nina event that occurred from July-September 2020 to December-February 2022-23 was one of the longest ever.
- It brought copious rains to India, just as two previous “strong” La Ninas in 2007-08 and 2010-11, followed by one “moderate” episode in 2011-12, had done.
- The most recent Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) value, which is a three-month running average of sea surface temperature (SST) deviation from the normal in the east-central equatorial Pacific, was minus 0.4 degrees Celsius for January-March 2023.
- Since La Nina is characterized by a negative ONI exceeding or equal to minus 0.5 degrees, it means that the so-called ENSO (El Nino-Southern Oscillation) cycle has entered a “neutral” phase.
- It is important to note that La Nina is a natural climate pattern and its effects can vary from year to year.
- However, the good monsoon rains that India has experienced since 2019 are a clear sign of the benefits that La Nina can bring to the country.
4. El Nino effect on India's Monsoon
- While La Nina brings good rainfall to India, the opposite "warm" phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle poses a threat.
- During El Nino, the trade winds weaken or reverse, causing warm water masses to shift towards the central and eastern equatorial Pacific.
- This results in increased rainfall in western Latin America, the Caribbean, and the US Gulf Coast, while Southeast Asia, Australia, and India experience reduced convective currents.
6. Forecasts and Implications
- The Australian Bureau of Meteorology forecasts a 50% chance of El Nino development later in 2023, which is double the normal likelihood.
- Warmer sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have already emerged in parts of the eastern tropical Pacific.
- The India Meteorological Department is scheduled to release its first long-range forecast for the 2023 southwest monsoon.
7. Historical Impact of El Nino on Indian Agriculture
- Drought years and monsoon failures in India have been closely associated with El Nino events of varying intensity since Independence.
- The only exception was 1966-67, while the preceding year experienced a "strong" El Nino. However, not all El Nino years have resulted in agricultural decline.
- Examples include 1982-83 and 1997-98, which saw only marginal decreases in foodgrain output.
- Positive agricultural GDP growth was observed in 1951-52, 1963-64, 1968-69, and 1994-95, coinciding with "moderate" El Nino events.
8. Outlook for 2023
- There is a high statistical probability that 2023 could break the streak of good rainfall years since 2019.
- The likelihood of this outcome remains high, regardless of the presence or strength of El Nino. However, even if El Nino occurs, it may manifest as a "weak" event.
9. Implications and Challenges
- In light of the potential decrease in monsoon rainfall, policymakers and industries, including tractor companies that have experienced record-high sales in recent years, must prepare for a subpar monsoon season.
- The associated political challenges are also significant, given the upcoming national Lok Sabha polls in April-May 2024, heightening the importance of managing the situation effectively.
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For Prelims: El Nino, La Lina, GDP, Rainfall, sea surface temperatures, El Nino Southern Oscillation, Monsoon, US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oceanic Nino Index,
For Mains:
1. What is El Nino? Explain El Nino Threat to India's Monsoon and discuss its impact on Indian Agriculture. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. A new type of El Nino called El Nino Modoki appeared in the news. In this context, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central Pacific ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in the Eastern Pacific ocean.
2. Normal El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Atlantic ocean but El Nino Modoki results in a greater number of hurricanes with greater frequency.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino? (UPSC 2011)
1. La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Nino is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has an adverse effect on the south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on the monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
3. Consider the following statements: (MPSC 2017)
a. La Nina is a little girl.
b. During the time of La Nina cold water in the ocean rises to the surface.
c. La Nina strengthens the Indian monsoon.
d. During the time of El Nino, trade winds weaken, and warm water moves east in the ocean. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. Only a and b B. a, b and c C. Only b and c D. All of the above
Answer: D
4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country is (SSC CGL 2022)
A. Total value of tradable goods produced in a year.
B. Total value of monetary and non-monetary goods and services within a year.
C. Total value of economic transactions done within a country within a year.
D. None of the above
Answer: D
5. With reference to India economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
6. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2020)
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
2. OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
7. With reference to 'Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)' sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)
1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an EI Nino's impact on the monsoon.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
8. "EL Nino" refers to a temperature anomaly in the ________ ocean. (NTPC 2017)
A. Indian B. Pacific C. Southern D. Atlantic
Answer: B
9. The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this phenomenon a cause of concern? (UPSC 2012)
1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplankton will be adversely affected.
2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be adversely affected.
3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely affected.
4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be adversely affected.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A
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Source: The Indian Express
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
1. Context
India’s headline inflation rate rose to 3.4% in March, as the impact of the war in West Asia was only felt in small pockets and to a limited extent, according to data released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) on Monday.
2. Consumer Price Index
- The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
3. Wholesale Price Index
- The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services at the wholesale level.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the WPI inflation rate.
- The WPI is calculated for 67 groups of commodities, which are further divided into 225 subgroups.
- The weights of each group and subgroup in the WPI are determined by the value of the goods and services produced in each group and subgroup.
- The WPI inflation rate is an important indicator of inflation at the wholesale level.
- It is used by businesses to make pricing decisions and by the government to set monetary policy.
4. Findings of the Report
4.1. Food inflation
- Food inflation in India remained high in August, at 9.94%. This was driven by rising prices of essential food items, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, and oils.
- Eleven of the 12 items on the heavyweight food and beverages group of the CPI logged price increases, with oils and fats, the sole item logging a year-on-year decline in prices, posting its first sequential increase in nine months.
- Vegetables provided some relief, with tomatoes leading an appreciable month-on-month deflation of 5.88% in the 19-member basket.
- However, the cooking staples of potatoes and onions were among the seven items that continued to log sequential inflation (2.3% and 12.3%, respectively).
4.2. Monsoon deficit and rising crude oil prices
- The near-term inflation outlook is also made more uncertain by other factors, including a distinct deficit in monsoon rainfall.
- Besides the overall 10% shortfall, sharp regional and temporal anomalies in rain distribution have impacted either the sowing or the quality of produce of several farm items.
- Kharif's sowing of pulses had, as of September 8, recorded an 8.6% shortfall compared with the year-earlier period.
- Another inflation driver, crude oil, has also seen a steady rise in prices as the output cuts by major oil producers of the OPEC+ grouping start to bite.
- The price of India's crude basket had, as of September 12, climbed 7.2% from the average in August to $92.65/barrel, according to official data.
4.3. RBI measures to control inflation
- For the RBI, the latest inflation data further roils its interest rate calculus.
- Unless CPI inflation decelerates by an incredible 250 basis points in September to a 4.33% pace, price gains are certain to substantially overshoot the monetary authority's 6.2% forecast for the July-September quarter, leaving it with few real options to achieve its medium-term price stability goal of 4% inflation.
- As the RBI has been at pains to stress, failure to anchor inflation expectations risks hurting growth.
5. About the sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- The sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a subset of the CPI that includes goods and services that change prices relatively infrequently.
- These goods and services are thought to incorporate expectations about future inflation to a greater degree than prices that change more frequently.
- Some of the items included in the sticky CPI are Rent, Housing costs, Utilities, Education, Healthcare, Transportation, Household furnishings and appliances, Personal insurance, Recreation, and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The sticky CPI is often used by economists to measure inflation expectations.
- This is because prices of sticky goods and services are less likely to be affected by short-term changes in supply and demand, and are therefore more likely to reflect changes in inflation expectations.
- The sticky CPI is also used by central banks to set monetary policy.
- This is because the central bank wants to make sure that inflation expectations are anchored at a low level.
- If inflation expectations start to rise, the central bank may raise interest rates to bring them back down.
6. How India’s retail inflation is measured?
- India's retail inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), a basket of goods and services commonly purchased by urban households.
- The CPI is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every month.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular month to those of the same in a base month.
- The base month is usually the previous year's corresponding month. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services, Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living in India.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
7. Calculation of Inflation
- Inflation is the rate at which the prices of goods and services increase over time.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to the prices of the same basket of goods and services in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the inflation rate.
There are two main ways to calculate inflation
1. Consumer Price Index (CPI): The CPI is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
The CPI is calculated by the following formula:
CPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services in current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services in base period) * 100
2. Producer Price Index (PPI): The PPI is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services that are produced by businesses. It is used to track inflation at the wholesale level.
The PPI is calculated by the following formula:
PPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the base period) * 100
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For Prelims: Consumer Price Index, Wholesale Price Index, Inflation, retail inflation, Producer Pirce Index, National Statistical Office, OPEC+, Crude oil, Kharif season, Monsoon,
For Mains:
1. Analyse the factors contributing to high food inflation in India in recent months. Discuss the impact of high food inflation on the Indian economy and suggest measures to mitigate it. (250 words)
2. Explain the concept of sticky inflation. What are the various factors that contribute to sticky inflation? Discuss the implications of sticky inflation for the Indian economy. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
Answer: C
2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only.
2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does.
3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
4. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)
A. Evolved B. Transformed C. Tested D. Targeted
Answer: D
6. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)
A. 35 kg B. 40 kg C. 30 kg D. 25 kg E. 50 kg
Answer: A
7. As per the the National Statistical Office (NSO) report released on 7 January 2022, India's Gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to grow at ___________ per cent (in first advance estimates) in the fiscal year 2021-22? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 17.6 per cent B. 9.5 per cent C. 11 per cent D. 9.2 per cent E. None of the above
Answer: D
8. The main emphasis of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is on which of the following? (UKPSC 2016)
A. The production of petroleum
B. Control over prices of petroleum
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of the above
Answer: C
9. In the context of global oil prices, "Brent crude oil" is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC 2011)
1. It is a major classification of crude oil.
2. It is sourced from the North Sea.
3. It does not contain sulfur.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
10. The term 'West Texas Intermediate', sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC 2020)
A. Crude oil B. Bullion C. Rare earth elements D. Uranium
Answer: C
11. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A
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Source: The Hindu
