The Kuki-Zomi people are a diverse group of ethnicities inhabiting the mountainous regions of Northeast India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh. They share a common ancestry and cultural heritage, and their name reflects this shared identity: "Kuki" is a more general term encompassing various sub-tribes, while "Zomi" is a relatively recent term adopted by some Kuki communities to emphasize their distinct identity and cultural heritage.

•  The exact origins of the Kuki-Zomi people remain unclear, but linguistic evidence suggests they migrated from Southeast Asia centuries ago. Today, they are found primarily in the Indian states of Manipur, Mizoram, Assam, Nagaland, and Tripura, as well as in Chin State, Myanmar, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh.
•  The Kuki-Zomi people comprise numerous sub-tribes, each with its own distinct dialect and cultural practices. Some of the major sub-tribes include the Hmar, Thadou, Paite, Gangte, Vaiphei, Zou, Aimol, and Anal. These sub-tribes speak various Kuki-Chin languages, which belong to the Tibeto-Burman language family.
• The Kuki-Zomi people have a rich and vibrant culture characterized by strong communal bonds, traditional music and dance, and colorful handicrafts. Their traditional attire is often adorned with intricate beadwork and embroidery, reflecting their artistic skills and cultural pride.
•  The Kuki-Zomi people have faced various challenges throughout their history, including displacement, conflict, and marginalization. However, they have demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability, preserving their unique culture and traditions despite these hardships.
• In recent years, the Kuki-Zomi people have made significant strides in education, entrepreneurship, and political representation. They are increasingly active in advocating for their rights and cultural identity, and their contributions to the social and economic development of the regions they inhabit are becoming increasingly recognized.

3. Delisting Proposal in Manipur

• The representation calling for the potential removal of specific Kuki and Zomi tribes from the Scheduled Tribes (ST) list in Manipur stems from the ongoing ethnic conflict that has persisted for eight months.
• This conflict, initiated on May 3, 2023, arose following an order from the Manipur High Court directing the State government to recommend the inclusion of Meiteis in the ST list to the Centre.
• As the Centre now requests the State government to examine the representation for the delisting of Kuki and Zomi tribes, there is a risk of exacerbating existing tensions between the valley-based Meitei people and the hills-based Kuki-Zo (ST) people in the State.
• One significant factor driving the Meiteis' demand for ST status is their inability to own land in the forested hill districts, where only STs are permitted to own land.
• Notably, this marks the first instance where members of the Meitei community are advocating for their inclusion in the ST list by contending that specific Kuki and Zomi tribes should not be part of it.
• This development may also have broader implications for the criteria used to designate groups as Scheduled Tribes, a framework that has remained unchanged since its introduction by the Lokur Commission in 1965.

Key Arguments in the Kuki-Zomi Delisting Proposal

• In Mr. Thounaojam’s representation, objections have been raised against the inclusion of three specific entries in the Scheduled Tribes (ST) list of Manipur namely, “Any Mizo(Lushai) Tribes,” “Zou,” and “Any Kuki Tribes.”
• The primary argument put forth for the exclusion of these entries is that they are not considered "indigenous" to the land of Manipur.
• According to the representation, there is no historical mention of these specific tribes residing in Manipur in pre-Independence Censuses.
• Furthermore, the representation contends that the vagueness surrounding the terms "Any Mizo (Lushai) Tribes" and "Any Kuki Tribes" in the ST list has purportedly facilitated illegal immigrants from Myanmar and Bangladesh in wrongfully obtaining benefits intended for Scheduled Tribes in India.

6. Examining Claims of Non-Indigeneity and Misuse

PARIS AGREEMENT

1. Context

2. What is Paris Agreement?

• Paris Agreement is a multinational agreement that was signed as part of the UNFCCC with the intention of reducing and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
• 196 nations ratified the climate change agreement at the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris in December 2015. It is an international agreement that is binding on all parties involved.
• Achieving the long-term temperature goal was the purpose of the Paris Climate Accord. To attain a world without greenhouse gas emissions by the middle of the century, nations strive to peak global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
• The Paris Climate Accord's major objective is to keep global warming well below 2° Celsius and ideally below 1.5° Celsius in comparison to pre-industrial levels.
• The Paris Agreement is a watershed moment in the multilateral climate change process because it brings all nations together for the first time in a binding agreement to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.

3. COP21

• To keep the rise in the average world temperature to well under 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To continue making efforts to keep global warming to 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels, knowing that doing so would greatly lessen the dangers and effects of climate change.
• The Agreement also mentions achieving the global peaking of emissions by the middle of the century while taking into account the fact that developing nation Parties will have a longer peaking period.

4. What are NDCs

• At the Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which took place in Paris in December 2015, nations from all over the world pledged to establish a new global climate agreement by that time.
• In advance of a new international agreement, nations have committed to publicly state their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions or the climate activities they plan to take after 2020.
• The 2015 agreement's ambitious goals and whether the world is put on a course toward a low-carbon, climate-resilient future will be largely determined by the INDCs.
• The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of India has also been submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• Countries communicate actions they will take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Paris Agreement's goals in their NDCs.
• Countries also communicate actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the effects of rising temperatures in their NDCs.

Image Source: The Hindu

5. Highlights of the report on the performance of the Paris Agreement

• After the signing of the Agreement, the last eight years (2015-2022) have consecutively been the warmest years on record globally.
• The situation could have been far worse if the La Nina weather event had not occurred in the past three years, which has a cooling effect on the weather system.
• Globally updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius have failed even to achieve a 2-degree Celsius target.
• The Paris Agreement has not been able to equitably phase out fossil fuels predominantly responsible for the climate crisis.
• Neither the NDCs nor the disaster risk reduction and climate risk management plans are in place to combat climate-induced extreme weather phenomena.

6. A series of climate records fell over in 2022, the report showed. 

• Global mean temperature rising: The global mean temperature in 2022 was 1.15°C, ranging from 1.02°C to 1.28°C above the 1850–1900 average. This was the highest on record for the past eight years. The value is about 0.2°C higher than the statistic before 2015. The pre-industrialisation era is considered a benchmark as there was no significant anthropogenic emission at the time.
• Record melting of Antarctica ice: Sea ice in Antarctica dropped to an all-time low, 1.92 million square kilometres, on February 25, 2022. This was almost a million sq km below the mean of the last three decades till 2020. 
• Greenhouse gases surged: The levels of three major greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — continued to increase in 2022. The data shows that growth rates of all three gases have increased around 20 per cent compared to 2011-15 levels.
• Sea level rise doubled: Global mean sea level continued to rise in 2022. It has doubled to 4.62 millimetres per year during 2013–2022 from 2.27 mm recorded in the first decade of the satellite record (1993–2002). The rate of increase quickened after 2015. Ocean heat content, which measures this gain in energy, reached a new observed record.
• Record thinning of glaciers: Long-term observational data is available for glaciers, which were found to have thinned over 1.3 metres between October 2021 and October 2022. The loss is much larger than before. The cumulative thickness loss since 1970 amounts to almost 30 metres.
• More than half of the oceans saw marine heatwaves in 2022:  Despite continuing La Nina conditions, 58 per cent of the ocean surface experienced at least one marine heatwave during 2022. 
• Heatwaves killed 15,000 in Europe: Record-breaking heatwaves affected China and Europe during the summer, with excess deaths associated with the heat in Europe exceeding 15000. Casualties were reported across Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Portugal.
• 1,600 suffered deaths from weather extremes in India: India suffered from significant flooding at various stages during monsoon, particularly in the northeast in June, with over 700 deaths reported from flooding and landslides and a further 900 from lightning.

For Prelims: Paris Agreement, Conference of the Parties (COP 21), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), UNFCCC, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). For Mains: 1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC 2021)

 

Previous year Question 1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017. 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility for global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries cope with climate change.   Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only B.  2 only C.  2 and 3 only D.  1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016) A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals Answer: B

Source: Down to Earth

 

INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE (ISA)

 

 

1. Context

 

President Donald Trump has withdrawn the US from 66 international organisations, including UN bodies and the International Solar Alliance led by India and France, saying these institutions were “redundant” and “contrary” to his country’s interests.

 

2. What is the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?

 

• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an initiative led by India and France, launched during the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris in 2015.
• It aims to promote the use of solar energy globally, especially in solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. However, membership is now open to all UN member countries

• India, as a founding member, uses ISA as a platform to advance its renewable energy targets, including the ambitious goal of achieving 500 GW of renewable capacity by 2030.
• The ISA complements India's domestic initiatives, like the National Solar Mission
• In 2021, the United States joined the ISA, signaling global support for solar energy adoption.
• The One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative, also led by India, aligns with ISA’s objectives by advocating for a transnational solar grid that connects renewable energy sources globally.

 

3. What is India’s solar capacity as of now?

 

• The ISA was intended to act as a catalyst, helping countries tackle challenges like financial, technological, and regulatory barriers to adopt solar energy effectively.

• Despite significant advancements in solar energy deployment, ISA has had limited success in facilitating a large number of projects. Over the past five years, global solar power capacity has grown by over 20% annually, with a more than 30% increase reported last year, as indicated by ISA’s World Solar Market Report 2024.

• Ajay Mathur, director general of ISA, noted that most of these new installations are concentrated in a few countries, with China leading the way. Of the 345 GW of solar capacity added in 2023, China alone contributed over 216 GW, representing more than 62% of the total.

• More than 80% of global solar energy investments go to developed countries, China, and major emerging markets like India.

• Many countries lack experience with large-scale energy projects, especially in solar, which is a relatively new technology. Local developers are often absent, meaning international companies are needed for investment. However, these investors typically look for policy stability and well-defined regulatory frameworks.

• ISA has partnered with governments and local organizations to help establish regulatory frameworks, prepare power purchase agreements, and train local professionals

 

India’s dedication to renewable energy and climate action was fundamental to the establishment of the ISA. With a goal of reaching 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy by 2030, India’s renewable energy targets align with the ISA’s mission to promote solar energy worldwide. This target is part of India’s broader Panchamrit Initiative, which focuses on reducing carbon emissions and advancing sustainable development. Additionally, India is instrumental in shaping ISA’s programs and promoting global cooperation. Its extensive experience in scaling solar energy projects and developing supportive policies serves as a model for other member nations, particularly those aiming to expand energy access. By sharing best practices and technical knowledge, India seeks to support other countries in advancing their solar energy initiatives.

 

4. Significance of ISA

 

• Solar energy plays a pivotal role in the global shift to renewable energy, which is essential for addressing climate change. It is the fastest-growing renewable source, though it does face the challenge of intermittency.

• In many parts of the world, solar is now the most cost-effective energy source when sunlight is available. Projections for solar energy capacity show it could expand by 3 to 15 times by 2050, depending on the pathway chosen to reach global net-zero emissions.

• China leads in solar PV installations, accounting for about 43% of the world's total. The top ten markets together hold over 95% of installed capacity, while less than 2% of new solar installations are in Africa—a region where nearly 80% of the 745 million people without electricity reside.

• The ISA was founded with a broader strategic vision for India, aiming to enhance its influence, especially among the Global South, with a particular focus on African nations

5. Objectives of ISA

 

• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) seeks to mobilize $1 trillion in solar investments by 2030 through its 'Towards 1000' strategy, which aims to lower both technology and financing costs.
• This ambitious plan targets energy access for 1 billion people and the installation of 1,000 GW of solar capacity. Achieving these objectives would reduce global carbon emissions by approximately 1,000 million tonnes of CO₂ per year.
• ISA’s programs focus on three core areas—Analytics & Advocacy, Capacity Building, and Programmatic Support—to establish a supportive environment for solar investments and share best practices among member nations.
• ISA also drives solar adoption across sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, transportation, and power generation. By promoting policies and facilitating the exchange of successful strategies, ISA enables member countries to encourage solar energy deployment.
• The alliance has introduced innovative business models, supported governments in developing solar-friendly policies via its Ease of Doing Solar analytics, and pooled demand to reduce costs of solar technologies.
• Additionally, ISA enhances financing access by lowering investment risks, making the solar sector more attractive to private investors and paving the way toward a sustainable energy future.

6. India's Solar Sector and Government Initiatives

 

• India's solar sector is growing rapidly, placing the country fifth globally in terms of solar power capacity. As of September 2024, India’s installed solar capacity has reached around 90.76 GW, a 30-fold increase over the last nine years. According to the National Institute of Solar Energy, the country’s solar potential is estimated at 748 GW.
• India’s Panchamrit targets include: (i) achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 2030, (ii) sourcing 50% of its energy from renewables by 2030, (iii) reducing projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes by 2030, (iv) cutting carbon intensity by 45% by 2030, and (v) reaching Net Zero by 2070.
• India has made significant progress, with its non-fossil fuel capacity increasing by 396% over the past 8.5 years, and 46.3% of its total energy capacity now comes from non-fossil sources, underscoring its dedication to sustainable energy as highlighted in international climate forums.
• Government policies, including the 100% FDI allowance in renewable energy projects, have enhanced the sector's appeal to investors. Additionally, technological advancements and a strong regulatory framework are creating an enabling environment for the continued expansion of solar energy projects

7. Way Forward

 

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) represents a pivotal shift towards a sustainable energy future, with India at the forefront of this initiative. The ISA’s mission extends beyond improving energy access and security to making substantial global carbon emissions reductions. The upcoming assembly offers an essential platform for nations to collaborate and emphasize the urgent need to accelerate solar energy adoption.

As more countries align with ISA’s mission, solar energy is positioned to play a central role in the global energy landscape. The ISA’s efforts, coupled with India’s strong commitment to solar advancement, pave the way for a cleaner, more sustainable world for future generations. Through international cooperation and innovative approaches, the ISA is well-positioned to contribute meaningfully to global climate objectives and universal energy access

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity & climate change For Mains: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.

 

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (2016) The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)   Statement 1 is correct. The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015 in Paris. Statement 2 is incorrect. Initially, the ISA was intended for solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. However, in subsequent years, the membership was expanded to include all UN member countries

 

Source: PIB

 

 

BUDDHISM

 

 

1. Context

 

 For many years, locals in Zehanpora assumed that the mounds of earth they saw running for acres were part of the landscape. Spread over 10 acres in a small village in Baramulla, North Kashmir, the mounds have only recently been discovered to be man-made, and estimated to be over 2,000 years old.

 

2. Conclave of Buddhism

 

• The event, titled ‘Buddha Dhamma and the Culture of Northeast India’, aims to emphasize the Northeast's important role as a hub for Buddhist practices, monastic life, and cultural heritage.

• According to Abhijit Halder, Director-General of the International Buddhist Confederation (IBC), a global organization based in New Delhi, the region has played a vital role in preserving and promoting diverse Buddhist traditions, including Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.

• Halder also noted that various indigenous communities in Northeast India have harmoniously blended Buddha Dhamma with their own customs. He highlighted the example of Theravāda Buddhism in the Namsai district, calling it an inspiring example of spiritual perseverance, cultural strength, and contemporary revival. One of the key goals of the conclave, he said, is to showcase this unique legacy to the global audience

 

3. Buddhism

 

Buddhism originated in India around the 5th to 6th centuries BCE, during what historians describe as the "Second Urbanisation"—a period marked by significant socio-cultural shifts in the Gangetic plains. It arose alongside other non-orthodox traditions like Jainism as a reaction against the rigid, ritual-heavy practices of Vedic Hinduism.

The Four Noble Truths

At the heart of the Buddha’s teachings lie the Four Noble Truths:

• The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Suffering is an inherent part of human existence. Life is marked by pain, dissatisfaction, and the inevitability of loss.

• The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (Dukkhasamudaya): Suffering has a cause, rooted in a chain of twelve interconnected elements known as the dvādaśa nidāna or bhavachakra (wheel of becoming). These links are:

  (i) Avidyā (ignorance),
  (ii) Samskāra (karmic formations),
  (iii) Vijñāna (consciousness at conception),
  (iv) Nāmarūpa (mind and body),
  (v) Ṣaḍāyatana (six sense organs),
  (vi) Sparśa (contact),
  (vii) Vedanā (sensation),
  (viii) Tṛṣṇā (craving),
  (ix) Upādāna (attachment),
  (x) Bhava (becoming),
  (xi) Jāti (birth),
  (xii) Jarā-maraṇa (aging and death).

• The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): Liberation from suffering is possible. When ignorance (Avidyā), the root cause, is eliminated, the chain of dependent links collapses, ultimately ending suffering.

• The Truth of the Path Leading to the End of Suffering (Magga): There is a practical path to overcome suffering, known as the Eightfold Path, which guides individuals toward enlightenment and freedom from the cycle of rebirth and suffering

 

4. Eightfold Path

 

 

The Eightfold Path is elaborated in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta found in the Dīgha Nikāya of the Sutta Piṭaka. By following this path, an individual can achieve ultimate enlightenment and eliminate suffering by eradicating ignorance, which is the root cause. The path consists of eight interconnected principles:

1. Right Understanding (Sammā diṭṭhi)

2. Right Intention (Sammā saṅkappa)

3. Right Action (Sammā kammanta)

4. Right Speech (Sammā vācā)

5. Right Effort (Sammā vāyāma)

6. Right Livelihood (Sammā ājīva)

7. Right Mindfulness (Sammā sati)

8. Right Concentration (Sammā samādhi)

Three Gems   Buddhism prescribes the three gems (triratna) as the means of liberation. These are: 1. Knowledge (Prajñā), 2. Conduct (śila), and 3. Meditation (samādhi)

 

5. Pitakas

 

The Buddha aimed to guide people toward liberation, and to effectively communicate his message to the general population, he chose to teach in the Pāli language. His teachings were later compiled into a sacred Buddhist text known as the Tipiṭaka, which translates to "Three Baskets" and is held in the highest regard within the Buddhist tradition.

This canonical text is divided into three main sections:

• Sutta Piṭaka (the "Basket of Discourses") – the most extensive section, containing the Buddha’s teachings, sermons, and some religious verses.

• Vinaya Piṭaka (the "Basket of Discipline") – focused on the codes of conduct and rules governing the monastic community or sangha.

• Abhidhamma Piṭaka – a more analytical and philosophical segment that delves deeper into Buddhist doctrines and psychological teachings

 

6. Sects of Buddhism

 

Following the death of the Buddha, his disciples began interpreting his teachings in varied ways, which eventually led to doctrinal differences and the rise of distinct branches of Buddhism, namely Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.

Theravāda Buddhism

• Considered the most traditional and orthodox form of Buddhism, Theravāda adherents identify as followers of the theras—venerable elder monks—committed to the early teachings.

• It is primarily practiced in South and Southeast Asia. Philosophical sub-sects under the broader Hinayāna category include Vaibhāsika and Sautrāntika.

• Theravāda emphasizes the historical figure of Gautama Buddha and stays true to his original teachings and monastic discipline. It focuses on personal enlightenment through meditation and self-control.

• The scriptures of this tradition are composed in the Pāli language. Emperor Ashoka played a key role in its dissemination.

Mahāyāna Buddhism

• Originating in the 1st century CE, Mahāyāna doctrines were further refined during the Fourth Buddhist Council held under Emperor Kanishka in Kashmir.

• Central to Mahāyāna thought is the ideal of the Bodhisattva—a compassionate being who forgoes final liberation in order to assist others on their spiritual journey.

• This tradition is dominant in northern and northeastern parts of Asia. Its key philosophical schools include Yogācāra and Mādhyamika.

Vajrayāna Buddhism

• Vajrayāna evolved out of Mahāyāna during the 6th–7th centuries CE. It found its stronghold in regions such as Bengal, Bihar, and Tibet, where it continues to be practiced.

• In this tradition, enlightenment is believed to be attainable through esoteric rituals and the acquisition of mystical powers, symbolized by the Vajra (meaning thunderbolt or diamond).

• Vajrayāna also places emphasis on female deities, who are seen as powerful forces (Shakti) behind male Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. These divine consorts, especially the Tārās, are revered as saviors in this sect

 

 

 

For Prelims: Dalai Lama, Janang tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, reincarnation, Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa,  For Mains:  1. What is Tibetan Buddhism? Discuss the Hierarchy and Reincarnation in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school: (UPSC 2013) 1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transmigration of the soul. 2. Sankhya holds that it is self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only    B. 2 only        C. Both 1 and 2     D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: 2   2. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? A. The extinction of the flame of desire B. The complete annihilation of self C. A state of bliss and rest D. A mental stage beyond all comprehension   Answer: A   3. With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (UPSC 2018) A. Avalokiteshvara B. Lokesvara C. Maitreya D. Padmapani Answer: C 4. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016) The concept of Bodhisattva is central to the Hinayana sect of Buddhism. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   5. Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes (2012) (a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation (b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara (c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory (d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context Answer: B

Source: The Indian Express