• The Constitution allows Parliament to make provisions in all matters relating to elections to the Parliament and State Legislatures.
• After independence, there was a need to hold general elections to elect a truly representative government based on universal adult suffrage.
• Article 325 of the constitution ensures universal suffrage and provides that no person be ineligible for inclusion in or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
• In the exercise of this power, the Parliament has enacted laws like Representation of the People Act 1950 (RPA Act 1950), and Representation of the People Act 1951 (RPA Act 1951).

3. The Representation of the People Act, 1951

• It is an act of Parliament of India to provide for the conduct of election of the Houses of Parliament and to the House or Houses of the Legislature of each state, the qualifications and disqualifications for membership of those Houses, the corrupt practices and other offences at or in connection with such elections and the decision of doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with such elections.
• It was introduced in Parliament by Law Minister Dr B.R. Ambedkar. The Act was enacted by the provisional parliament under Article 327 of the Indian Constitution, before the first general election.

3.1. Key provisions of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951

• It regulates the actual conduct of elections and by-elections in the country.
• It provides administrative machinery for conducting elections.
• It deals with the registration of political parties.
• It specifies the qualifications and disqualifications for membership of the Houses.
• It provides Provisions to curb corrupt practices and other offences.
• It lays down the procedure for settling doubts and disputes arising out of elections.

3.2. Qualifications for Contesting Elections in India

• A person must be an elector in the constituency
• The Minimum age for becoming MLA/MP (Lok Sabha) is 25 years.
• The person must be a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe in any State/UT if he/she wants to contest a seat reserved for them.
• The Minimum age limit for contesting elections at the Panchayat and Municipality levels is 21 years.
• A person shall not be qualified to be chosen as a representative of any state or Union territory in the Rajya Sabha unless he/she is an elector for a Parliamentary constituency.

3.3. Disqualification of MPs and MLAs

The RPA, 1951 lays down certain rules for the disqualification of MPs and MLAs.

3.4. Voting Rights

Article 326 of the Constitution guarantees the right to vote to every citizen above the age of 18 years unless disqualified by any law. Section 62 of the RPA, 1951 also ensures that every person who is in the electoral roll of that constituency is entitled to vote.

• One can vote in one constituency only and only for one time in a particular election.
• If a person is confined in a prison, whether under a sentence of imprisonment or transportation, then he is not eligible for voting, however, in the case of preventive custody he can vote.
• The Election Commission of India (ECI) had said that the person under preventive custody had the right to vote, but not under trials and convicts.
• The Act allows those serving sentences of less than 2 years to contest election from prison.

3.5. Provisions Related to Political Parties

• Every association or body to become a political party must be registered with the ECI whose registration decision will be final.
• Registered Political Parties, over time, can get recognition as “State Part” or National Party”.
• Change in name and address of a registered political party must be communicated to the ECI.
• The ECI cannot derecognise a party
• Voluntary Contributions by any person or company within India (other than a government company) can be accepted by the registered political party.
• A company can donate any amount of money to any political party.
• There is no obligation of the company to report such donations in its profit and loss account.
• It is mandatory for the political parties to submit to the ECI a list of donations they received above Rs. 2, 000.
• Political parties cannot receive more than Rs 2000 as cash donations.
• Now, Political parties are eligible to accept contributions from foreign companies defined under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010.
• Individuals contesting elections have to file an affidavit, declaring their criminal records, assets and liabilities and educational qualification.
• After getting elected, MPs are required to file a declaration of assets and liabilities with the Speaker of Lok Sabha and the Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
• These declarations have to be made by MPs within 90 days of taking their seats in Parliament.
• Candidates need to furnish information on whether he/she is accused of any offence punishable with imprisonment of 2 years or more in a pending case or has been convicted of an offence.
• Any class of person can be notified by the ECI in consultation with the concerned government which can give their votes by postal ballot.
• At every election where a poll is taken, the votes are counted by or under the supervision of the Returning Officer and contesting candidate, his election agent and his counting agents.
• Destruction, loss, damage or tampering of ballot papers at the time of counting must be reported by the RO to the ECI.
• All government or non-government officials are included within the scope of corrupt practices.
•  Any gift/offer/ promise or gratification to any person as motive or reward.
• Any direct or indirect interference attempt to interfere on the part of the candidate with the free exercise of any electoral right.
• The publication by a candidate of any statement of fact that is false about the personal character/ conduct of any candidate
• The hiring of any vehicle by a candidate of any elector to or from any polling station
• Any person who promotes or attempts to promote on grounds of religion, race, caste, community or language, feelings of enmity or hatred between different classes of citizens of India can be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to 3 years.
• Prohibition of public meetings during 48 hours ending with the hour fixed for the conclusion of the poll.

3.6. Significance of the Acts

• The Provision of direct election for every constituency makes the process of election more democratic and participatory by encouraging and empowering people to play an active role in choosing appropriate candidates.
• The RPA, 1950 provides for delimitation which brings equality in the process of election by ensuring roughly an equal number of electors in each constituency.
• The acts strengthened the federal polity of the country by giving due representation to each state in the Parliament.
• The RPA, 1951 plays a significant role in breaking the politicians, police and criminal nexus by prohibiting the entry of persons with a criminal background into the electoral process.
• The RPA, 1951 provides for the expenditure monitoring mechanism which ensures the accountability and transparency of the candidate in the use of public funds or misuse of power for personal benefits.
• The RPA, 1951 prohibits corrupt practices like booth capturing, bribery or promoting enmity etc., and ensures the conduct of free and fair elections which in turn encourage political liberalization and democratization.
• The RPA, 1951 provides that only those political parties which are registered under section 29A of the RPA, 1951 are eligible to receive electoral bonds, thus providing a mechanism to track the source of political funding and ensuring transparency in electoral funding.

3.7. Amendments to the Act

None of the above was introduced in the ballot papers/Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in the General Election to the State Assemblies in 2013.

• Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail is an independent system attached to the EVMs that allows voters to verify that their votes are cast as intended.
• It was introduced in 2013 after the Supreme Court allowed the ECI the requirement of free and fair elections in its verdict in the People’s Union for Civil Liberties vs. Union of India case (2013).
• The displaying of any election matter by television or similar apparatus in a constituency, 48 before the polling ends or concludes is prohibited.
• Section 126 does not apply to Print media, news portals and social media.
• Section 126A prohibits the conduct of exit polls and dissemination of their results during the period mentioned.
• A candidate contesting polls in large states can spend up to Rs 70 lakh in the Lok Sabha election and Rs. 28 lakh in an Assembly election.
• Section 8 (4) allowed convicted MPs, and MLAs to stand for elections by filing a complaint that was repealed. It is a step towards decriminalising politics.
• Insertion of Section 62 (2), which allowed a person post detention to contest elections as he no longer ceased to be an elector as his name is included in the electoral roll.
• The recent amendments included Section 20A of RPA, which now allows NRI to vote from their current residence via the postal ballot system.

3.8. Challenges to the Act

• Even after the provision of the declaration of assets and liabilities in the RPA Act, candidates do not disclose all the assets and provide wrong and incomplete information regarding their assets, liabilities income and educational qualifications.
• Despite the inclusion of several provisions aimed at making the ECI an independent body, it is still dependent on the Union for financial matters that pave the way for political parties to manage to get the officers in their favour through money and muscle power.
• The ECI does not have an independent staff of its own so whenever elections take place, it has to depend upon the staff of Central and State Governments hence the dual responsibility of the administrative staff, to the government for ordinary administration and to the ECI for electoral administration is not conducive to the impartial and efficient functioning of the Commission.
• The RPAs lack clear provisions and guidelines on matters related to the misuse of official machinery that gives an unfair advantage to the ruling party at the time of elections and leads to the misuse of public funds for furthering the prospects of candidates of a particular party.

4. The Way Forward

• By an amendment made to the RPA 1951, conducting and publishing results of exit polls have been prohibited. There should be a similar prohibition or restriction on opinion polls as several manipulated opinion polls could impact the voting pattern.
• The RPA, 1951 should be amended to include all the items related to the election disclosure in the affidavit and making false declarations in connection with the election to be an offence.
• TO curb the practice of bureaucratization of politics and to secure complete independence of the Election Commission, its expenditure should be charged to the Consolidated Fund of India.
• Parliament must pass a law dealing with the serious problem of delisting valid electors from electoral rolls because illiterate electorate residing in far villages cannot watch over the publication of electorate lists.

INDUS WATER TREATY

1. Context

2. Is unilateral suspension permissible?

• The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) cannot be modified or terminated by one country alone. Article XII explicitly states that the agreement may only be ended through a "duly ratified treaty" mutually accepted by both India and Pakistan.

• India’s reference to placing the treaty “in abeyance” in its communication with Pakistan lacks legal grounding, as international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 1969—which serves as the foundational framework for international agreements—do not recognize this term.

• Under Article 62 of the VCLT, a treaty may be withdrawn from if there has been a “fundamental change of circumstances” compared to when it was first signed.

• Although India is not a signatory and Pakistan has signed but not ratified the VCLT, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its ruling on the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, recognized Article 62 as part of customary international law—making it applicable even without formal ratification.

• India appears to be appealing to this legal doctrine in its letter, which emphasized that a “fundamental change in circumstances” warrants a reassessment of its commitments under the IWT.

•  For instance, in the 1997 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros case involving Hungary and Slovakia’s dam project, Hungary claimed that evolving political and economic conditions, along with potential environmental risks, justified ending the treaty.

• The ICJ dismissed these claims, asserting that the cited changes were not directly tied to the treaty’s central goal of cooperative energy generation

3.How will this have effect on Pakistan?

• Over 80% of Pakistan’s agricultural activities and nearly one-third of its hydropower production rely on the Indus basin's water resources.
• Despite this heavy dependence, analysts point out that India does not have the extensive water storage facilities or a widespread canal network necessary to retain the vast volumes—tens of billions of cubic metres—of water from the western rivers.
• India’s existing infrastructure primarily comprises run-of-the-river hydropower projects, which are not designed for significant water storage.
• Nevertheless, the primary concern lies in the unpredictability of water flows, which poses a serious threat to Pakistan’s largely agriculture-based economy

4. Applications moved by Pakistan and India earlier

• The World Bank, the third party to the Treaty and the acknowledged arbiter of disputes were, meanwhile faced with a unique situation of having received two separate requests for the same dispute.
• New Delhi feels that the World Bank is just a facilitator and has a limited role.
• On December 12, 2016, the World Bank announced a "pause" in the separate processes initiated by India and Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty to allow the two countries to consider alternative ways to resolve their disagreements.
• The regular meetings of Indus Waters Commissioners resumed in 2017 and India tried to use these to find mutually agreeable solutions between 2017 and 2022.
• Pakistan refused to discuss these issues at these meetings.
• At Pakistan's continued insistence, the World Bank, in March last year, initiated actions on the requests of both India and Pakistan.

• They will carry out their duties in their capacity as subject matter experts and independently of any other appointments they may currently hold.
• On October 19, 2022, the Ministry of External Affairs said, " We have noted the World Bank's announcement to concurrently appoint a Neutral Expert and a Chair of the Court of Arbitration in the ongoing matter related to the Kishanganga and Ratle projects".
• Recognising the World Bank's admission in its announcement that "carrying out two processes concurrently poses practical and legal challenges".
• India would assess the matter that "India believes that the implementation of the Indus Water Treaty must be in the letter and spirit of the Treaty".
• Such parallel consideration of the same issues is not provided for in any provisions of the Treaty and India has been repeatedly citing the possibility of the two processes delivering contradictory rulings, which could lead to an unprecedented and legally untenable situation, which is unforeseen in Treaty provisions.

5. Dispute redressal mechanism 

• The dispute redressal mechanism provided under Article IX of the IWT is graded.
• It's a 3-level mechanism.
• So, whenever India plans to start a project, under the Indus Water Treaty, it has to inform Pakistan that it is planning to build a project.
• Pakistan might oppose it and ask for more details. That would mean there is a question and in case there is a question, that question has to be clarified between the two sides at the level of the Indus Commissioners.
• If that difference is not resolved by them, then the level is raised. The question then becomes a difference.
• That difference is to be resolved by another set mechanism, which is the Natural Expert.
• It is at this stage that the World Bank comes into the picture.
• In case the Neutral Expert says that they are not able to resolve the difference or that the issue needs an interpretation of the Treaty, then that difference becomes a dispute.
  It then goes to the third stage the Court of Arbitration.
• To Sum up, it's a very graded and sequential mechanism first Commissioner, then the Neutral Expert and only then the Court of Arbitration.

6. India's notice and its implications

• While the immediate provocation for the modification is to address the issue of two parallel mechanisms, at this point, the implications of India's notice for modifying the treaty are not very clear.
• Article XII (3) of the Treaty that India has invoked is not a dispute redressal mechanism.
• It is in effect, a provision to amend the Treaty.
• However, an amendment or modification can happen only through a "duly ratified Treaty concluded for that purpose between the two governments". 
• Pakistan is under no obligation to agree to India's proposal.
• As of now, it is not clear what happens if Pakistan does not respond to India's notice within 90 days.

• India has not spelt out exactly what it wants to be modified in the Treaty.
• But over the last few years, especially since the Uri attack, there has been a growing demand in India to use the Indus Waters Treaty as a strategic tool, considering that India has the natural advantage of being the upper riparian state.
• India has not fully utilized its rights over the waters of the three east-flowing rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej over which India has full control under the Treaty.
  It has also not adequately utilized the limited rights over the three west-flowing rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum which are meant for Pakistan.
• Following the Uri attack, India established a high-level task force to exploit the full potential of the Indus Waters Treaty.
• Accordingly, India has been working to start several big and small hydroelectric projects that had either been stalled or were in the planning stages.

For Prelims & Mains

FOREIGN PORTFOLIO INVESTMENT (FPI)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 Recently, SEBI Chairman Tuhin Kanta Pandey said that a proposal to permit foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) to trade in non-cash settled, non-agricultural commodity derivatives contracts is currently under review

 

 

2. What are foreign portfolio investors (FPI)?

 

 

• Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) are overseas entities or individuals who invest in the financial assets of a country, such as shares, bonds, debentures, mutual funds, or other securities, without having direct control over the businesses they invest in.
• Unlike Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), which involves establishing a lasting interest in an enterprise, setting up facilities, or acquiring a controlling stake, FPIs are primarily concerned with earning returns from the movement of capital markets.
• Essentially, FPIs put their money into a country’s stock market or debt market to benefit from short- or medium-term price changes, dividends, or interest income.
• Their investment is often guided by considerations like the stability of the economy, growth prospects, interest rates, and global liquidity conditions.
• Because the money can be moved in and out relatively quickly, FPIs are often described as “hot money,” highlighting the fact that such investments can be highly volatile.
• In India, FPIs are regulated by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), which set the rules regarding eligibility, permissible investment limits, and reporting requirements
•  These investors can include foreign institutional investors such as pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds, asset management companies, or even individual investors from abroad.
• Their participation is significant because it not only provides additional capital for companies and governments but also increases liquidity and depth in the financial markets.
• However, large-scale entry or exit of FPIs can impact stock prices, exchange rates, and overall financial stability

 

3. How is it different from foreign direct investment?

 

• That’s a very relevant follow-up. The key difference between Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) lies in the nature, purpose, and level of control over the assets being invested in.
• Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) refers to investment in a country’s financial markets—such as equities, bonds, or other securities—without seeking management control or a lasting interest in the company.
• An FPI is more like buying shares on the stock exchange: the investor becomes a shareholder but has little or no say in how the company is run.
• The intention is usually to earn returns from dividends, interest, or capital gains, and the money can move in and out relatively quickly depending on market conditions. Because of this, FPIs are generally considered more volatile and speculative in nature.
• On the other hand, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) involves investing directly in productive assets of another country, such as setting up factories, infrastructure projects, offices, or acquiring a significant stake in a company to gain management influence.
• The idea here is to establish a long-term business presence and contribute to the host country’s economic activities.
• FDI is more stable because it ties the investor to physical assets and operational responsibilities, making it less prone to sudden withdrawal compared to FPI.

 

In short: FPI is financial investment—short to medium term, market-driven, without control. FDI is business investment—long-term, with management control and significant impact on the host economy.

 

 

4. What is the significance of FPI?

 

 

• FPI brings in foreign capital into a country’s stock and debt markets, which increases the liquidity and depth of those markets. This makes it easier for domestic companies and governments to raise funds, since more investors are available to buy their securities.
• It also improves market efficiency, as the entry of sophisticated foreign investors often brings in better practices in valuation, analysis, and corporate governance.
• For the broader economy, FPIs are an important source of foreign exchange inflow. This helps strengthen the balance of payments, stabilizes the currency in times of pressure, and gives policymakers more room to finance trade deficits.
• For emerging economies like India, FPIs signal international confidence in the domestic economy. When foreign investors channel funds into Indian markets, it reflects their positive outlook on India’s growth potential, macroeconomic stability, and regulatory environment.
• However, FPIs are equally significant because of their volatility. Since FPI money can be withdrawn at short notice—depending on global interest rates, risk perception, or geopolitical conditions—large inflows or sudden outflows can cause swings in stock markets and currency values.
• For example, massive withdrawals of FPI funds may lead to a depreciation of the rupee and stock market instability, affecting both investors and the wider economy.

 

Positive side – boosts liquidity, deepens capital markets, brings foreign exchange, and reflects global confidence. Risk side – can cause volatility and expose the economy to sudden capital flight

 

 

5. What is Foreign capital paradox?

 

The Foreign Capital Paradox refers to the puzzling observation that capital (money for investment) does not always flow from rich countries to poor countries, even though economic theory suggests it should.

In theory, poorer countries, being capital-scarce, should offer higher returns on investment compared to rich countries where capital is already abundant and returns are relatively lower. Based on this logic, one would expect foreign capital—through FDI, FPI, or loans—to flow heavily into developing or low-income nations, helping them grow faster. This is consistent with the predictions of the neoclassical growth model.

However, in reality, the flow of capital is often the opposite. A large share of global investment moves among already rich, developed nations rather than toward poorer countries. Many developing countries actually see capital outflows instead of inflows, despite their greater need for funds. This mismatch between theory and reality is what economists call the “foreign capital paradox.”

 

One of the best-known explanations for this paradox comes from Robert Lucas (1990), often referred to as the Lucas Paradox. He argued that capital doesn’t flow as expected due to several factors: Institutional weaknesses in developing countries (weak governance, poor enforcement of contracts, corruption). Political instability and risk that discourage investors. Lack of human capital (skilled labor, technology absorption capacity) to complement physical capital. Poor infrastructure and underdeveloped financial markets. Policy uncertainty, such as sudden changes in taxation or restrictions on profit repatriation

 

 

For Prelims: Balance of payments (BOP), foreign portfolio investors (FPI),  foreign direct investment(FDI)   For Prelims: GS III - Economy

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Which of the following is issued by registered foreign portfolio investors to overseas investors who want to be part of the Indian stock market without registering themselves directly? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Certificate of Deposit (b) Commercial Paper (c) Promissory Note (d) Participatory Note Answer (d)   Participatory Notes (P-notes) are financial instruments issued by registered Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) to overseas investors who wish to invest in Indian stock markets without directly registering with SEBI. They are essentially offshore derivative instruments, linked to Indian securities. For example, if an FPI buys shares of Infosys in India, it can issue a P-note to an overseas investor. That overseas investor will gain the benefits (returns) from Infosys’ shares without directly owning them in India. This route is often used by investors who want to save time and avoid the regulatory process of registration, though SEBI keeps a close watch on P-notes due to concerns about transparency and misuse

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

MARITIME RED SEA ROUTE

1. Context

Some undersea cables in the Red Sea were reportedly cut recently, sparking internet disruptions in India, Pakistan and other parts of Asia on Sunday (September 5), with Microsoft terming it a cause for “increased latency” in the Middle East. The Associated Press reported on Tuesday that a ship was responsible for the damage.

2. About the ancient Red Sea trade route

• For years, it was thought that Roman merchants were the only ones trading with India.
• However, recent evidence shows that Indian merchants and shipowners were also involved in this trade.
• The scale of this trade was massive. According to the latest estimates, custom taxes on the Red Sea trade with India, Persia, and Ethiopia may have generated as much as one-third of the income of the Roman exchequer.
• The principal source for this figure is the Muziris Papyrus, a document that details the purchase of goods from an Indian merchant by an Egyptian financier.
• The Papyrus gives precise details of one particular cargo sent to the Egyptian port of Berenike from Muziris on the coast of Kerala.
• The total value of the goods was 131 talents, which is equivalent to the price of 2,400 acres of farmland in Egypt or a premium estate in central Italy.

Image Source: Wikipedia

3. Roman Empire earnings from this trade

• According to the Muziris Papyrus, the import tax paid on the cargo of almost nine million sesterces was over two million sesterces.
• Working up from these figures, it is estimated that Indian imports into Egypt were worth probably over a billion sesterces per annum, from which the tax authorities of the Roman Empire were creaming off no less than 270 million.
• These vast revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries Julius Caesar imposed a tribute of 40 million sesterces after his conquests in Gaul while the vital Rhineland frontier was defended by eight legions at an annual cost of 88 million sesterces.

4. Goods Traded on the Ancient Red Sea Route

4.1. Roman Imports from India

Luxuries: The Roman Empire had a significant appetite for luxury items from India. This included products like malabathrum, a plant whose leaves were used to create perfume, as well as ivory, pearls, and precious gemstones. Notably, Pompeii contained a shop dedicated solely to ivory products, showcasing the demand for such exotic materials.

Wild Animals: There was a demand for "exotic" goods, including live animals like elephants and tigers from India.

Spices: Pepper was India's major export to Rome. Large quantities of pepper have been discovered in excavations at Berenike, often stored in torpedo-shaped pottery jars, each weighing more than 10 kg. By the end of the first century CE, Indian pepper had become readily available, although it remained an expensive treat. Pepper was a common ingredient in Roman cuisine, with approximately 80 per cent of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius including it.

4.2. Roman Exports to India

• The flow of goods from Rome to India was more limited. Pliny the Elder noted that gold was a significant export to India, creating a trade imbalance that posed challenges for the Roman economy.
• However, there are records indicating that Indians developed a taste for Roman wine.
• Some limited trade also involved items like olive oil and Garum, an ancient Roman fermented fish paste, which could be likened to contemporary condiments like Tabasco or garam masala.

5. Trade on the Route Before the Common Era

• Evidence of trade along this route dates back to ancient times, including during the time of Meluha, the Indus Valley Civilization (approximately 3300-1300 BCE).
• However, this early trade appears to have been more localized and coastal, involving smaller quantities of goods.
• In Roman times, this trade expanded significantly, with large cargo ships directly connecting the Indian subcontinent to the Roman Empire.
• The Romans played a crucial role in "industrializing" this trade, driven by their economic capacity to purchase the luxury items that India offered.
• The trade flourished, particularly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, after the Romans conquered Egypt, which opened up the route to adventurous Roman merchants.

6. Organization of the Trade and Voyage Duration

• The trade along the ancient Red Sea route was highly organized. Merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria engaged in formal contracts.
• Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern shipping practices, where a container would be booked and filled with specific products.
• There are even references to insurance, highlighting the sophistication of this trade network.
• Indian traders recognized the monsoon winds, which blew in different directions in winter and summer due to the heating of the Tibetan Plateau.
• By timing their voyages correctly, they could take advantage of these winds. The journey from India to Egypt, or vice versa, could be completed in about six to eight weeks with the winds behind them.
• However, travellers had to wait for a few months for the winds to change direction.

7. Roles of Indians in the Red Sea Trade

Interest in Seafaring: Indian dynasties displayed a keen interest in seafaring, evident in ancient artwork like the depictions of large double-masted ships in Ajanta caves. Additionally, ships were common symbols of early Indian coins, such as those from the Satavahanas dynasty.

Prominent Role of Indian Sailors: Indian sailors played a prominent role in the Red Sea trade. Graffiti left by Indian sailors, often Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), was discovered in the Hoq caves on Socotra Island, a vital stopover at the Gulf of Aden's mouth. These inscriptions, dating from the second to the fifth century CE, were primarily in the Indian Brahmi script, with names like "Vishnu, son of the merchant Ganja" and "Skandabhuti, the Sea Captain." They also featured images of ships, religious symbols, and prayers to deities like Krishna and Radha.

Ownership of Shipping: While historical records suggest that much of the shipping departing from Egyptian Red Sea ports may have been owned by Alexandrian businessmen, it's plausible that Indian merchants and ship owners also had a significant stake in this trade due to the substantial Indian presence in the maritime activities of the period.

8. Comparison with the Silk Road

Silk Road vs. Red Sea Route: The Red Sea trade route, connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire through the Red Sea, differs significantly from the concept of the Silk Road. While the Silk Road has gained popularity in modern times, it was entirely unknown in ancient or medieval times. The term "Silk Road" was coined in the late 19th century by Baron von Richthofen, primarily for a proposed railway route.

Historical Accuracy of Silk Road: There is no ancient record, whether from Chinese or Western sources, that mentions the existence of the Silk Road. Even Marco Polo, often associated with this route, never mentions it. The idea of the Silk Road gained prominence only in the 1980s-90s, largely due to its romantic appeal.

Inaccuracy of Silk Road Focus: The Silk Road concept is mostly inaccurate for the Roman period. Instead, during this time, there is no evidence of direct contact or trade between China and Europe. Chinese silk, for example, likely reached Rome through ports in India, travelling overland through Kushana territory in northern India to reach Gujarat and the mouth of the Indus.

9. Emerging Understanding of Indo-Roman Trade

New Evidence and Underplayed History: The recent emergence of a deeper understanding of Indo-Roman trade is attributed in part to the discovery of new archaeological evidence in places like Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt. Additionally, India has sometimes underplayed its significance as a centre of trade and ideas in the early classical period.

The Significance of the 1st and 2nd Centuries CE: The 1st and 2nd centuries CE represent an intriguing period when India played a vital role in exporting its ideas and luxury goods to the Roman world. This era witnessed the spread of Buddhism to China and the provision of luxury items to Rome. While scholars like Himanshu Prabha Ray have made valuable contributions to this field, there is a need to make their findings more accessible to a wider audience.

10. The Way Forward

• The recent revelations about India's central role in this ancient trade route have opened up numerous questions for exploration.
• For instance, the influence of Buddhist monasticism in India on the development of Christian monasticism in the late Roman period remains a topic of investigation.
• As more information comes to light, researchers can delve further into the connections and impacts of this extensive East-West trade network, shedding new light on the history of these two interconnected worlds.

 

For Prelims: India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, G20, Roman Empire, Silk Road, ancient Red Sea trade route, Muziris Papyrus,  Indus Valley Civilization, Red Sea, Egypt, Tibetan Plateau, Ajanta caves, Satavahanas dynasty, Gulf of Aden, Buddhism,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the significance of the Maritime Red Sea Route in connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire. How has recent evidence reshaped our understanding of this trade route compared to the Silk Road? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only            (b) 2 only      (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C   2. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20? (UPSC 2020)  A. Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey B. Australia, Canada, Malaysia and New Zealand C. Brazil, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam D. Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and South Korea   Answer: A   3. Read the statements (A) and (R) and choose the correct option. (CTET 2022)  Assertion (A): The Roman empire carried out trades with South India.  Reason (R): Roman gold coins have been found in South India. A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. B. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A. C. (A) is true, but (R) is false. D. (A) is false but (R) is true.   Answer: A   4. Who was the first emperor of the Roman Empire? (ACC 122 CGAT 2020)  A. Tiberius     B. Mark Antony        C. William Shakespeare     D. Augustus   Answer: D   5. Comprehension (SSC CGL Tier 2 2020)  Directions: Read the passage and answer the questions that follow. The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most of Europe as we know it today and a large part of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. The Roman Empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and languages; that women had a stronger legal position then than they do in many countries today; but also that much of the economy was run on slave labour, denying freedom to substantial numbers of persons. From the fifth century onwards, the empire fell apart in the west but remained intact and exceptionally prosperous in its eastern half. Roman historians have a rich collection of sources to go on, which we can broadly divide into three groups: (a) texts, (b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sources include letters, speeches, sermons, laws, and histories of the period written by contemporaries. These were usually called ‘Annals’ because the narrative was constructed on a year-by-year basis. Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cut on stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce sheets of writing material that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists’. Material remains include a very wide assortment of items that mainly archaeologists discover (for example, through excavation and field survey), for example, buildings, monuments and other kinds of structures, pottery, coins, mosaics, even entire landscapes. Each of these sources can only tell us just so much about the past, and combining them can be a fruitful exercise, but how well this is done depends on the historian’s skill! Which of these statements is NOT true? A. Archaeologists make discoveries through excavations. B. Inscriptions were carved in Greek and Latin C. The Roman empire flourished longer in the west. D. Texts, documents and material remains were the main sources for the historians   Answer: C   6. In the first century AD, which among the following was not a major item of Indian exports to Rome? (CDS GK  2018)  A. Pepper        B. Spikenard           C. Tortoiseshell         D. Nutmeg   Answer: D   7. Pepper was as valued in Roman Empire that as it was called (CTET  2013) A. Black magic        B. Black charm         C. Black stone       D. Black gold   Answer: D   8. In the middle of the first century BC, under ________, a high-born military commander, the ‘Roman Empire’ was extended to present-day Britain and Germany. (SSC JE CE 2017) A. Alexander       B. Julius Caesar        C. Xerxes     D. Caligula   Answer: B   9. Comprehension Direction: Read the passage carefully and select the best answer to each question out of the given four alternatives. The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century. The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning in the Han dynasty in China. The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China, Korea, Japan, the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Europe, the Horn of Africa and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations. Though silk was the major trade item exported from China, many other goods and ideas were exchanged, including religions (especially Buddhism), syncretic philosophies, sciences, and technologies like paper and gunpowder. So, in addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network. Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Road. Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade. The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it cannot be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which almost certainly came from China) or a type of wild silk, which might have come from the Mediterranean or Middle East. Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road.   According to the passage, The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting to one another. Which routes were not linked by it? (DSSSB Junior Stenographer 2021)  A. East Asia with Southern Europe B. East Asia with South Asia C. South America and South Africa D. East Asia with Persia   Answer: C   10. The term “Silk Route” in the ancient period refers to (CTET 2022) A. the travelling route of traders from China to other countries carrying silk. B. Sea routes connecting countries in which silk traders sold their products. C. roads connecting all the countries in which mulberry plants were cultivated. D. road and sea routes in which silk products were traded.   Answer: A   11. Who started the ‘Silk-route’ (Marg) for Indians? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2016)  A. Kanishka      B. Harshwardhan      C. Ashok       D. Fahien   Answer: A   12. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well-known as (UPSC 2023) A. capital cities  B. ports  C. centres of iron-and-steel    D.  making shrines of Jain Tirthankaras Answer: B   13. Two thousand years ago, a trader narrates that he has been to Gaza, Petra and Apologos. Which of the following trade routes has he travelled through? (CTET 2022) A. Route controlled by Roman emperors B. Route under the rulers of Persia C. Route controlled by Kushanas D. Route under the rulers of China   Answer: A   14. Red sea is an example of: (UPPSC Civil Service 2017) A. Volcanic valley B.  Eroded valley      C.  Axial trough      D. U-shaped valley   Answer: C   15. In which Indian state was the ancient sea port 'Muziris' located? (UP Police SI 2017) A. Kerala    B. Gujarat      C. Karnataka      D. Tamil Nadu   Answer: A   16. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011) 1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene. 2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only       B.  2 only           C.  Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: C

 

Source: The Indian Express