2. Location of Katchatheevu Island

Katchatheevu is a small, uninhabited island covering 285 acres situated in the Palk Strait, positioned between India and Sri Lanka. It measures approximately 1.6 kilometres in length and slightly over 300 meters wide at its widest point.

• The island is located northeast of Rameswaram, around 33 kilometres from the Indian coastline. It is situated approximately 62 kilometres southwest of Jaffna, which is at the northern tip of Sri Lanka. Moreover, Katchatheevu is about 24 kilometres away from Delft Island, an inhabited island that belongs to Sri Lanka.
• The notable feature on Katchatheevu Island is the St. Anthony’s Church, built in the early 20th century. This Catholic shrine holds cultural and religious importance, especially during its annual festival. Christian priests from both India and Sri Lanka conduct services during this festival, attracting devotees from both countries who make pilgrimages to the island. In 2023, around 2,500 Indians travelled from Rameswaram to participate in this significant event.
• Despite its religious and cultural significance, Katchatheevu is not suitable for permanent human settlement due to the absence of a reliable source of drinking water on the island. This limitation restricts any long-term habitation on the island, making it primarily a site for occasional religious gatherings and pilgrimages.

3. Historical Background of Katchatheevu Island

Katchatheevu Island, formed as a result of a volcanic eruption in the 14th century, holds a relatively recent place in the geological timeline.

• During the early medieval period, Katchatheevu was under the control of the Jaffna kingdom of Sri Lanka. However, by the 17th century, control shifted to the Ramnad Zamindari, which was based in Ramanathapuram, approximately 55 kilometres northwest of Rameswaram.
• With the advent of colonial rule, Katchatheevu became part of the Madras Presidency under the British administration. In 1921, both India and Sri Lanka, then British colonies, laid claim to Katchatheevu to delineate fishing boundaries in the region.
• A survey conducted during this period marked Katchatheevu as part of Sri Lanka. However, a British delegation from India contested this claim, asserting ownership of the island by the Ramnad kingdom.
• The dispute over the ownership of Katchatheevu persisted until 1974 when a final resolution was reached. This resolution marked a significant milestone in clarifying the status of the island and delineating the maritime boundaries between India and Sri Lanka.

4. Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement and Fishing Rights

In 1974, efforts were made by then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to resolve the maritime border dispute between India and Sri Lanka permanently. This initiative led to the establishment of the 'Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement,' which resulted in the cession of Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka by India.

• Under the agreement, Indira Gandhi decided to "cede" Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka, perceiving the island to hold little strategic value for India. This move was intended to strengthen diplomatic ties between the two neighbouring countries.
• Despite ceding the island, Indian fishermen were granted continued access to Katchatheevu as per the agreement, maintaining their traditional fishing practices in the region. However, the agreement did not explicitly address the issue of fishing rights, leading to subsequent challenges and differing interpretations.
• Sri Lanka interpreted Indian fishermen's access to Katchatheevu as limited to activities such as resting, drying nets, and visiting the Catholic shrine, without requiring a visa. This interpretation created ambiguity regarding the extent of fishing rights granted to Indian fishermen in the waters surrounding Katchatheevu.
• In 1976, another agreement during India's Emergency period further complicated matters by prohibiting both countries from fishing in each other's Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). However, Katchatheevu lies at the boundary of both countries' EEZs, adding to the uncertainty surrounding fishing rights and activities in the region.
• The agreements made in the 1970s regarding Katchatheevu and fishing rights have left unresolved issues, contributing to periodic tensions and disputes between Indian fishermen and Sri Lankan authorities. The lack of clear delineation and mutual understanding regarding fishing access around Katchatheevu continues to be a contentious issue between India and Sri Lanka.

5. Impact of the Sri Lankan Civil War on Katchatheevu

The period between 1983 and 2009 was marked by the Sri Lankan Civil War, during which the border dispute involving Katchatheevu took a back seat amidst the intense conflict.

• During the civil war, Sri Lankan naval forces were primarily focused on combating the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) based in Jaffna. This preoccupation allowed Indian fishermen to venture deep into Sri Lankan waters without significant repercussions. Incursions by Indian fishermen, especially using larger trawlers, became common during this time. These activities led to tensions as they not only overfished but also caused damage to Sri Lankan fishing equipment and vessels.
• The end of the civil war in 2009 brought about significant changes. Sri Lanka bolstered its maritime defences and shifted its attention to issues such as illegal fishing activities by Indian fishermen.
• Indian fishermen, facing resource depletion in Indian waters, continued to venture into Sri Lankan waters as they had done for years. However, with increased surveillance and stricter enforcement post-civil war, they began facing arrests and other consequences by the Sri Lankan navy.
• To this day, the Sri Lankan navy regularly apprehends Indian fishermen for illegal fishing activities in Sri Lankan waters. Incidents of alleged custodial torture and deaths have also been reported, further complicating the situation. Each such incident reignites demands to revisit the issue of Katchatheevu and its impact on fishing rights and maritime boundaries between India and Sri Lanka. The historical context of the island's ownership and fishing rights continues to be a source of contention and debate between the two nations.

6. Tamil Nadu's Stance on Katchatheevu

The issue of Katchatheevu holds significant political and emotional weight in Tamil Nadu, with successive governments and leaders advocating for its retrieval and the restoration of fishing rights for Tamil fishermen.

• The decision to "cede" Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka in 1974 without consulting the Tamil Nadu state assembly sparked immediate protests. This decision was seen as infringing on traditional fishing rights and livelihoods of Indian Tamil fishermen, given the historical ties of the Ramnad Zamindari to the island.
• The Tamil Nadu Assembly has consistently demanded the retrieval of Katchatheevu and the restoration of fishing rights. Leaders like J Jayalalitha and MK Stalin, among others, have actively pursued this agenda through legal and diplomatic channels.
• In 2008, Jayalalitha filed a petition arguing that ceding Katchatheevu required a constitutional amendment and had adversely affected fishermen's rights. Similar efforts were made by other leaders, including appeals to the Supreme Court.
• Despite Tamil Nadu's persistent demands, the Union government's stance has remained unchanged. It asserts that since Katchatheevu has been under dispute historically, no territorial or sovereignty claims were ceded.
• While there is vocal demand for Katchatheevu's retrieval, practical challenges hinder such efforts. The Union government has pointed out that revisiting Katchatheevu's status would require drastic measures, potentially leading to diplomatic complexities or conflict.

NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION (NHRC)

• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established in India on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
• This Act was enacted to fulfill the obligations India undertook by becoming a signatory to the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, which called for the establishment of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights.
• The NHRC was founded with the aim of addressing human rights violations and promoting awareness and respect for human rights across the country. It operates as an autonomous body, independent of the government, to ensure impartiality and effectiveness in its functioning.
• Since its inception, the NHRC has played a crucial role in investigating complaints of human rights violations, conducting inquiries, and making recommendations to the government for remedial action. It also engages in advocacy, education, and awareness programs to promote a culture of human rights in India.
• Over the years, the NHRC has evolved and expanded its scope to address various human rights issues, including those related to civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. It operates at both the central and state levels, with a chairperson and members appointed by the President of India.
• The NHRC's history is marked by its efforts to uphold the principles of justice, equality, and dignity enshrined in the Indian Constitution and international human rights instruments

4. NHRC Composition 

The composition of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) includes a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India. According to the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, the NHRC consists of:

• Chairperson: The chairperson is appointed by the President of India and must be a retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or a serving or retired Judge of the Supreme Court.

• Members: The NHRC can have up to four members, including a member who is or has been a Judge of the Supreme Court, a member who is or has been the Chief Justice of a High Court, and two other members who have knowledge or practical experience in matters relating to human rights.

These appointments aim to ensure the independence, expertise, and credibility of the NHRC in addressing human rights issues effectively. The members serve fixed terms as specified by the Act, and they collectively contribute to the commission's efforts to protect and promote human rights across the country

5.Appointment of NHRC Members

 

The appointment of members to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) follows a process outlined in the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. Here's an overview of the appointment procedure:

• Selection Committee: A Selection Committee is constituted to recommend candidates for appointment as Chairperson and members of the NHRC. The Selection Committee is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and includes the following members:

  • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the Deputy Speaker, in case the Speaker is unable to attend.
  • The Minister in charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Government of India.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) in the absence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha

6.Functions & Powers of NHRC

 

The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is empowered with various functions and powers to protect and promote human rights across the country.

 

Here are some of its key functions and powers:

• The NHRC is authorized to inquire into complaints of human rights violations received from individuals or groups. It can investigate violations committed by public servants or by any authority or person acting under the government's authority
• The Commission has the power to monitor human rights violations, including through suo moto action, where it can initiate an inquiry based on media reports, complaints, or its own knowledge
• Following investigations or inquiries, the NHRC can make recommendations to the concerned authorities for remedial action, prosecution, or compensation to victims of human rights violations
• The NHRC engages in activities to raise awareness about human rights issues through seminars, workshops, publications, and other educational programs
• It advises the government on policies and measures to promote and protect human rights effectively
• The NHRC can intervene in court proceedings related to human rights violations, either as a party or as amicus curiae (friend of the court)
• The Commission conducts research and studies on human rights issues to better understand the challenges and formulate appropriate responses
• Based on its findings and experiences, the NHRC can recommend legislative reforms to strengthen human rights protection in the country
• The NHRC collaborates with international human rights organizations and participates in international forums to promote human rights globally
• The NHRC has the authority to visit and monitor places of detention, such as prisons and juvenile homes, to ensure that inmates' human rights are respected

 

7. Limitations of NHRC 

 

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India plays a significant role in protecting and promoting human rights, it also faces several limitations, including:

 

• The NHRC lacks direct enforcement authority. It can investigate human rights violations, make recommendations, and issue guidelines, but it cannot enforce its decisions or ensure their implementation. Its recommendations are non-binding, and compliance by government agencies or other authorities is voluntary.
• The process of investigation and resolution of complaints by the NHRC can be lengthy and time-consuming, leading to delays in providing justice to victims of human rights violations. This delay can undermine the effectiveness of the NHRC in addressing urgent and serious violations
• The NHRC operates with limited resources, including budgetary allocations and staffing. This constraint can affect its capacity to handle a large number of complaints effectively and conduct thorough investigations into human rights violations
• The NHRC's jurisdiction is limited to investigating human rights violations committed by public servants or authorities acting under the government's authority. It may not have jurisdiction over violations by non-state actors or in certain areas like the armed forces, where separate mechanisms exist
• There have been instances where political pressures or interference have affected the independence and impartiality of the NHRC. Political influence can hinder its ability to address human rights violations objectively and without bias
• Many people, especially in rural areas and marginalized communities, may not be aware of the NHRC's existence or how to access its services. This lack of awareness and accessibility can prevent victims of human rights violations from seeking redress through the commission
• Even when the NHRC makes recommendations for remedial action or compensation, there may be instances where these recommendations are not implemented fully or effectively by the concerned authorities

 

 

For Prelims: National Human Rights Commission For Mains: Emerging Human Rights Challenges, Role and Functions of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Other than the Fundamental Rights, which of the following parts of the Constitution of India reflect/reflects the principles and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)? (UPSC CSE 2020) Preamble Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Duties Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 only  (c) 1 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d) 2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2011) Right to education Right to equal access to public service Right to food. Which of the above is/are Human Right/Human Rights under “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only  (c) 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d)   1.Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing theirstructural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2021)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)

 

 

1. Context

 

Foreign direct investment (FDI) has remained a major contributory factor in India’s economic landscape since the first wave of investments began in the wake of the 1991 reforms. FDI has played a crucial part in the modernisation of India’s industrial base, leading to technological innovation and linking the country more deeply with global markets. E-commerce and the computer hardware and software sectors are two areas that saw a massive influx of FDI, changing these sectors profoundly

 

2. FDI in India

• India's net foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows experienced a decline, decreasing by nearly 31% to $25.5 billion during the first 10 months of the 2023-24 fiscal year. The Finance Ministry attributed this decline to a broader trend of slowing investments in developing countries, while expressing optimism for a potential increase in investments in the current calendar year.
• Although global FDI flows overall saw a 3% rise to approximately $1.4 trillion in 2023, economic uncertainty and elevated interest rates impacted global investment, resulting in a 9% decrease in FDI flows to developing nations, as outlined in the Ministry's February assessment of economic performance.
• Reflecting the global trend of reduced FDI flows to developing countries, gross FDI inflows to India also experienced a slight decline, from $61.7 billion to $59.5 billion during the period from April 2023 to January 2024. In terms of net inflows, the corresponding figures were $25.5 billion versus $36.8 billion. The decrease in net inflows was primarily attributed to an increase in repatriation, while the decline in gross inflows was minimal.
• While a modest uptick in global FDI flows is anticipated for the current calendar year, attributed to a decrease in inflation and borrowing costs in major markets that could stabilize financing conditions for international investment, significant risks persist, according to the Ministry. These risks include geopolitical tensions, elevated debt levels in numerous countries, and concerns regarding further fragmentation of the global economy

 

3. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) refers to the investment made by individuals, businesses, or governments from one country (the home country) into another country (the host country) with the objective of establishing a lasting interest or significant degree of influence in the foreign business or enterprise

Key Aspects:

• FDI involves the transfer of funds and resources from one country to another. This capital inflow can help stimulate economic growth in the host country by providing funds for investment in infrastructure, technology, and other areas.
• FDI often leads to the creation of jobs in the host country. When foreign companies establish subsidiaries or invest in existing businesses, they typically hire local employees, which can help reduce unemployment and improve living standards
• Foreign investors often bring advanced technologies, processes, and management practices to the host country. This technology transfer can enhance the host country's productivity, competitiveness, and industrial capabilities
• FDI can provide access to new markets for both the host country and the investing company. Foreign investors can tap into the host country's consumer base, while the host country gains access to the investing company's global distribution networks.
• FDI can contribute to overall economic development in the host country by promoting industrialization, improving infrastructure, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.

4.FDI Routes in India

India has several routes through which Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) can enter the country. These routes are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), and they define the conditions, limits, and sectors in which FDI is allowed

1. Automatic Route: Under the automatic route, FDI is allowed without the need for prior approval from the RBI or the government. Investors only need to notify the RBI within a specified time frame after the investment is made. This route is available for most sectors, except those that are prohibited or require government approval.

2. Government Route: In sectors or activities that are not covered under the automatic route, FDI requires government approval. Investors must apply for approval through the Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal (FIFP) or the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), depending on the sector.

4.1. Examples

• Under the automatic route, FDI of up to 100% is allowed for manufacturing of automobiles and components.
• For the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route.
• In single-brand retail trading, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% allowed under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required.
• Multi-brand retail trading (supermarkets and department stores) with FDI is permitted in some states, subject to certain conditions and restrictions. The FDI limit is typically capped at 51%.
• FDI in the insurance sector is allowed up to 74%, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is needed
• In the telecom sector, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required
• In the defense sector, FDI up to 74% is allowed under the automatic route, with government approval required for investments beyond 49%
• In most segments of the media and broadcasting sector, including print and digital media, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route

4.2.Sectors where FDI Prohibited

• FDI is prohibited in the atomic energy sector, which includes activities related to the production of atomic energy and nuclear power generation.
• FDI is generally prohibited in the gambling and betting industry, which includes casinos and online betting platforms
• FDI is not allowed in the lottery business, except for state-run lotteries
• FDI is prohibited in chit funds, which are traditional Indian savings and credit schemes.
•  Nidhi companies are non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) that facilitate mutual benefit funds. FDI is typically not permitted in these entities
• While FDI is allowed in single-brand retail trading, it is generally prohibited in multi-brand retail trading of agricultural products. Some states have allowed it under specific conditions, but this remains a highly regulated area.
• FDI is not allowed in the trading of transferable development rights (TDRs) pertaining to the construction of real estate

5. Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs)

Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) refer to foreign individuals, institutions, or funds that invest in financial assets in a country, such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities. FPIs are distinct from Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs), who typically make long-term investments in companies and assets to establish a lasting interest

Key Aspects:

• FPIs invest in a country's financial markets, primarily by buying and selling securities traded on stock exchanges and fixed-income instruments like bonds and government securities
• FPIs often seek to diversify their investment portfolios by spreading their investments across different asset classes, sectors, and countries. This diversification helps manage risk and enhance returns
• FPIs have the flexibility to buy and sell securities in the secondary market, providing liquidity to the market and contributing to price discovery
• FPIs typically have a shorter investment horizon compared to Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs). They may engage in short-term trading or hold securities for a few months to a few years.
• FPIs are subject to regulatory frameworks and restrictions in the countries where they invest. These regulations are designed to ensure that foreign investments do not pose undue risks to the local financial markets and economy.

6.Foreign Portfolio vs. Foreign Direct Investment

 

FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment)	FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)
FPI involves the purchase of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities in a foreign country. These investments are typically made with the intention of earning returns on capital and do not result in significant control or ownership of the underlying businesses	FDI entails making an investment in a foreign country with the primary objective of establishing a lasting interest and significant control or influence over a business enterprise or physical assets. FDI often involves the acquisition of a substantial ownership stake (typically at least 10%) in a company or the establishment of new business operations.
FPI is generally characterized by a shorter investment horizon. Investors in FPI may engage in trading and portfolio rebalancing activities, and their investments are often more liquid. The focus is on earning capital gains and income from investments.	FDI is characterized by a longer-term commitment. Investors in FDI intend to engage in the day-to-day management or decision-making of the business, contribute to its growth and development, and generate profits over an extended period.
FPI investors typically have little to no influence or control over the companies in which they invest. They are passive investors who participate in the financial markets and rely on market dynamics to drive returns.	FDI investors actively participate in the management and decision-making of the businesses they invest in. They often seek to exercise control over company operations and strategy, which may include appointing board members or key executives.
FPI investments are often made through financial instruments like stocks, bonds, and securities. Investors may use instruments like mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs) to gain exposure to foreign markets	FDI investments involve a direct equity stake in a company, either through share acquisition or the establishment of a subsidiary or branch in the host country. FDI can also involve the purchase of real assets such as land, factories, or infrastructure
FPI can provide short-term capital inflows, but it may be more susceptible to market volatility and sudden capital outflows. It may not have as direct an impact on job creation and economic development as FDI.	FDI often contributes to long-term economic development by creating jobs, stimulating infrastructure development, transferring technology and expertise, and enhancing the competitiveness of local industries
FPI investments are subject to regulations that vary by country and may include foreign ownership limits, reporting requirements, and tax considerations.	FDI is subject to regulations that can be more stringent and may involve government approval, sector-specific conditions, and investment protection measures

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Both Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. (UPSC CSE 2011)   Which one of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two? A.FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital B.FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors C.FDI flows only into the secondary markets, while FII targets primary market D.FII is considered to the more stable than FDI   Answer (B)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

 

 

 

1. Context

 

As the government attempts to cobble together a consensus for pushing through two key legal amendments that aim to liberalise India’s nuclear energy sector, foreign equipment vendors have flagged the need for putting in place quality standards to upgrade the country’s mid-and lower-tier nuclear supplier base.

 

2. Nuclear Technology

 

• Nuclear technology stands out as a transformative and often debated advancement in the modern era. It centers on manipulating atomic nuclei through two main processes: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
• In nuclear fission, a large atomic nucleus breaks apart into smaller nuclei, frequently accompanied by radioactive decay, where unstable heavy elements gradually transform into lighter ones.
• Conversely, nuclear fusion involves the combination of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, often described as a constructive or generative reaction.
• Both fission and fusion release tremendous amounts of energy. Although nuclear fusion is still largely confined to experimental research, nuclear fission has been widely utilized since its discovery in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
• Its earliest and most impactful use was in the development of nuclear weapons by the United States under the Manhattan Project, employing elements like uranium and plutonium.
• These weapons were deployed during the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, marking the onset of what came to be known as the atomic or nuclear age

 

3. Nuclear technology in various sectors

The catastrophic devastation experienced by Japan during World War II spurred a global movement to channel nuclear technology toward peaceful and beneficial uses. In today’s world, nuclear technology finds itself at a pivotal juncture—while it offers significant advantages, concerns over its weaponization and potential misuse remain pressing. The major areas where nuclear technology proves beneficial include:

• Energy and industrial use – Nuclear energy is a dependable, long-term source of electricity that contributes to energy security while maintaining a low carbon footprint. As per the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 2024 report, nuclear power capacity worldwide reached 392 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2023, generated through nearly 440 operational reactors. Beyond electricity, nuclear power supports various industrial activities, including district heating systems and seawater desalination.
• Agriculture and food production – Nuclear techniques contribute to enhanced agricultural productivity and food security. They are used for the early diagnosis of animal diseases, better soil and water resource management, and environmentally sustainable pest control strategies like the Sterile Insect Technique. Additionally, crop irradiation helps improve resistance to diseases and ensures the safety of food products.
• Healthcare advancements – The use of nuclear science in medicine has significantly strengthened healthcare systems. Tools like PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) are pivotal for medical imaging, while radiotherapy and radioisotope therapies are essential for targeted cancer treatment and management.
• Defense and strategic balance – In the defense domain, nuclear capabilities are key to deterrence strategies, supporting geopolitical stability and acting as a tool for maintaining strategic balance among nations. Their very existence reduces the chances of full-scale or nuclear wars due to the principle of mutually assured destruction.
• Environmental and climate impact – Due to its low greenhouse gas emissions, nuclear energy is recognized as an important contributor to global climate objectives. Acknowledging this, 22 countries (later rising to 31) signed a declaration at COP 28 to triple nuclear energy production by 2050. Moreover, nuclear power delivers high energy output with minimal land usage compared to several other renewable sources

 

4. International regulatory framework

 

• Global efforts to regulate nuclear technology began in 1957 with the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which serves as a platform for promoting the peaceful application of nuclear science and technology.
• A major milestone followed in 1970 with the implementation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which is centered around three key pillars: preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, encouraging nuclear disarmament, and fostering the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
• Under the NPT, Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) are assured the right to pursue nuclear energy for peaceful uses, provided they refrain from developing or acquiring nuclear arms.
• Another significant international agreement is the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), adopted in 1996, which prohibits all nuclear explosions across all environments, whether for civilian or military purposes.
• Further strengthening the legal framework, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons came into force in 2021. It is the first legally binding international treaty to comprehensively ban nuclear weapons, covering their development, testing, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and use, including any threats of use.
• Other important non-proliferation mechanisms include the Zangger Committee—also known as the NPT Exporters Committee—which maintains a ‘trigger list’ of sensitive nuclear materials requiring safeguards, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), formed in 1975. The NSG is a consortium of nuclear-exporting nations working together to curb nuclear proliferation by regulating the export of nuclear-related materials and technologies

 

5. India's nuclear program

 

• India launched its nuclear energy programme in 1954 with a distinctive three-phase plan tailored to maximize the efficient use of its limited uranium resources and abundant thorium deposits through progressive nuclear technologies.
• The programme's first phase relies on Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which operate on natural uranium. The second phase introduces Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), using plutonium and uranium-238 derived from reprocessed spent fuel.
• The final phase envisions advanced nuclear reactors that will primarily utilize thorium, aiming to establish long-term energy independence for the country.
• India has successfully commercialized the first phase with operational PHWRs. The second phase was officially launched in 2024 with the commissioning of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. This reactor is expected to use a combination of thorium and uranium, tapping into India's substantial thorium reserves.
• In the Union Budget 2025–26, the government unveiled the ‘Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat’ and allocated ₹20,000 crore towards its implementation. A key focus of the mission is the development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which are intended to help the country reach its ambitious target of 100 GW nuclear power capacity by 2047 in a more secure and environmentally sustainable manner.
• To advance this goal, the government is fostering partnerships with the private sector and strengthening international civil nuclear cooperation with nations like the United States, Russia, and France.

 

6. Regulation of Nuclear Technology in India

 

 

• India has put in place a robust legal and institutional structure to oversee the use of nuclear technology. As per the Indian Constitution, 'atomic energy' is listed under the Union List, granting the central government sole authority to legislate in this domain.
• The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up in 1954 and functions under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission, which serves as the principal policymaking body for nuclear affairs in the country.
• To further solidify regulatory control, the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 replaced its 1957 predecessor. This legislation empowers the central government to oversee all aspects of atomic energy, including its production, development, and disposal.
• The Act also authorizes the government to formulate rules and establish agencies for its effective implementation.
• Using these legislative powers, the government has enacted regulations focusing on radiation safety and nuclear waste disposal. It also created the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), which is responsible for monitoring and ensuring nuclear safety standards across the country.
• Additionally, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) handles the planning, building, and operation of nuclear power stations. Recognizing the risks involved in nuclear activities, the government passed the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act in 2010. This law enforces strict liability on nuclear operators, holding them accountable for any damage caused, irrespective of fault

 

7. Way forward

 

While nuclear technology is often praised for being a clean energy source with multiple advantages, it also presents several critical challenges. Incidents such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters highlight the importance of maintaining rigorous safety standards. Additionally, issues like health hazards from uranium mining and the long-term management of radioactive waste continue to pose serious concerns.

In countries like India, the application of nuclear technology in areas such as agriculture and healthcare is still in its early stages and demands greater investment in research and innovation. However, with the implementation of well-framed policies, robust safety mechanisms, and international collaboration, nuclear energy can be effectively utilized to address global energy needs and contribute to scientific and technological advancement in a responsible and sustainable way.

 

 

For Prelims: Nuclear Waste Management, Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, uranium, plutonium For mains:  1. Discuss the challenges associated with nuclear waste management in the context of India's nuclear energy program. How can these challenges be addressed effectively? (250 Words) 2. Ethical considerations play a crucial role in nuclear waste management. Discuss the ethical concerns surrounding the potential for environmental injustice and the responsibility of nations in dealing with nuclear waste.(250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this on text, what advantage, does thorium hold over uranium? (UPSC 2012) Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only              (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Which among the following has the world’s largest reserves of Uranium? (UPSC 2009) (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Russian Federation (d) USA Answers: 1-D, 2-A

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

CENSUS 2027

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Registrar General of India (RGI) has sought a Rs 14,618.95-crore budget to conduct the Census 2027, which will be the first “Digital Census” and collect data on caste

 

2. Registrar General of India

 

 

• The Indian Census is the world’s largest administrative and statistical exercise. The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (ORG&CCI), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is tasked with conducting the decennial census.

• As per the Census India website, prior to 1951, a temporary Census Organisation was set up for each census. In 1948, the Census Act was enacted to establish a structured process for conducting population censuses and to define the responsibilities of census officials.

• To systematically collect data on population size, growth, and related statistics, the Government of India decided in May 1949 to create an organisation within the Ministry of Home Affairs under the Registrar General and ex-Officio Census Commissioner.

• This body was tasked with generating population statistics, including vital statistics and census data, and was later given the responsibility to implement the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969 across the country.

• Mritunjay Kumar Narayan is the current RGI, assuming office on November 1, 2022. His tenure was extended last year until August 4, 2026, or until further orders.

• According to the Census India website, the RGI’s office oversees the following key functions:

  • Housing & Population Census: The Census Commissioner is the statutory authority responsible for conducting the Housing & Population Census under the Census Act, 1948 and its rules.

  • Civil Registration System (CRS): As Registrar General of India under the Registration of Births & Deaths (RBD) Act, 1969, the RGI ensures the compulsory registration of births and deaths, coordinating civil registration and vital statistics across all States and Union Territories.

  • National Population Register (NPR): Prepared under the Citizenship Rules, 2003, the NPR collects information on all individuals who are usually resident in India, as part of the broader Citizenship Act, 1955 framework.

  • Mother Tongue Survey: This survey records mother tongues consistently reported across multiple Census decades and documents linguistic features of selected languages.

  • Sample Registration System (SRS): The ORG&CCI implements the SRS, a large-scale sample survey conducted semi-annually to estimate vital statistics such as birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, and maternal mortality rate at the state level

 

3. History of Census in India

 

• India’s first nationwide census, though non-synchronous, was carried out in 1872. It attempted to count people across most regions of the country, but some areas under British rule were not covered.

• The first synchronous census of India was conducted in 1881 under the supervision of W.C. Plowden.

• The 1881 Census represented a major step toward a modern, coordinated census system, focusing not only on complete population coverage but also on the classification of demographic, social, and economic features

 

4. Census 2027

 

 

• The Census 2027 will mark India’s 16th decennial Census overall and the eighth since Independence. The exercise will gather population data at the village, town, and ward levels, covering parameters such as housing conditions, amenities, assets, demographic characteristics, religion, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, language, literacy and education, economic activity, migration, and fertility.

• On June 16, the Centre officially notified its plan to conduct the Census 2027. This marks the first time a decennial Census has been delayed by six years. Some key features of the upcoming Census include:

  • Digital Census: For the first time, Census 2027 will be fully digital, with data collected via dedicated mobile applications. Citizens will also have the option to self-enumerate, and caste data will be recorded electronically.

  • Caste enumeration: On April 30, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) approved the inclusion of caste data in the Census.

  • Real-time monitoring and management: The Registrar General of India (RGI) is developing a Census Monitoring & Management System (CMMS) website to enable real-time oversight of the exercise. Over 35 lakh enumerators and supervisors will be deployed, which is more than 30% higher than the 27 lakh personnel used for the 2011 Census

 

5.  NPR

• The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
• Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
• According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
• Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
•  Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
• In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
• There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
• Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.

5.1. The current status of NPR

• The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
• It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
• In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
• The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
• For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
• The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
• The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
• The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
• Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
• The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
• The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
• The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.

 

 

 

For Prelims: NPR, CAA, Census, Covid-19, Expenditure Finance Committee, Registrar General of India, Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969, The Treatise on Indian Censuses Since 1981, Assam,  For Mains: 1. How can citizens file Census details online? Explain the norms being laid down and discuss the reasons for National Population Register being made compulsory for those who want to fill out the form digitally. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   Prelims:   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2009) 1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times. 2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only          (b) 2 only                 (c) Both 1 and 2                 (d) Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform. 2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform. 3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 and 3 only                   C. 1 and 3 only              D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   3. Sinovac given for Covid-19 is a  (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022) A. Protein sub-unit B. Non-replicating viral vector C. Whole virus vaccine D. mRNA vaccine   Answer: C   4. Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the Parliament which Include "The Macro Economic Framework Statement". The aforesaid document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC 2020)  A. Long-standing parliamentary convention B. Article 112 and Article 110 (1) of the Constitution of India C. Article 113 of the Constitution of India D. Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 Answer: D   5. Who is the Census Commissioner of India in 2021? (ICAR Technician 2022) A. Dr Vivek Joshi B. Dr C Chandramouli C. Shri Sailesh D. DK Sikri   Answer: A   6. The Registration of Birth and Death Act came into force in the year _____. (UPSSSC Junior Assistant 2020)  A. 1964      B. 1969    C.  1972        D.1981   Answer: B   7. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2022) 1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Kerala 3. Himachal Pradesh 4. Tripura How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States? A. Only one State B. Only two States C. Only three States D. All four States   Answer: C   8. Consider the following rivers (UPSC 2014)  1. Barak 2. Lohit 3. Subansiri Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?  A. 1 only    B.2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only      D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   Mains: 1. Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth. (UPSC 2014)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

EXPENDITURE ON CHILDREN'S EDUCATION IN INDIA

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Despite a recent drop in the World Economic Forum’s gender gap rankings, partly due to the education category, India has made steady progress in recent years in terms of enrolling more girls in school, with government data showing that girls now make up 48% of the school population. In higher education, in fact, the gross enrolment ratio for women is slightly higher than that of men. However, data collected as part of the National Sample Survey earlier this summer show a more insidious gender gap that remains in education — the differing amounts of money that families spend on their sons as opposed to their daughters for their education.

 

2. What are the differences of expenditure?

 

• The latest findings from the Comprehensive Modular Survey on Education, conducted during April–June under the 80th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS), reveal a consistent gender disparity in educational spending.
• Across all stages of schooling—from pre-primary to higher secondary—and across both rural and urban areas, households spend less per girl student compared to boys.
• The survey covered 52,085 households in 2,384 villages and 1,982 urban blocks, collecting education-related details for 57,742 currently enrolled students.
• In rural regions, families spent on average ₹1,373 (18%) more on boys, factoring in course fees, books, stationery, uniforms, and transportation. In urban areas, the gap was even starker, with ₹2,791 less being spent on each girl than on boys.
• By the higher secondary stage in cities, families spend nearly 30% more on boys’ education. When tuition fees alone are considered, the disparity is sharper: nationwide, households pay 21.5% higher course fees for boys than for girls.
• This bias is also reflected in school choices. Around 58.4% of girls attend government schools, where course fees are minimal, while only 29.5% are in private schools. By contrast, 34% of boys are enrolled in costlier private unaided schools.
• The divide extends beyond classrooms into private tuitions, now widely seen as essential for quality education.
• Although 26% of girls and 27.8% of boys take tuition classes, spending patterns show inequity: by higher secondary level, families invest on average 22% more in tuition fees for boys than for girls

 

3. Expenditure on State Wise

 

 

• The gender gap in education differs considerably across Indian States. Looking at enrolments in government versus private schools, the widest disparities appear in places like Delhi, where about 65% of girls attend government schools compared to 54% of boys.
• In contrast, nearly 38.8% of boys study in private institutions, while only 26.6% of girls do so. States such as Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Punjab also record gaps exceeding 10 percentage points. In Gujarat, the imbalance is pronounced in urban centres but relatively narrow in rural regions.
• By comparison, Tamil Nadu and Kerala display near parity between boys and girls in both government and private school enrolment, whereas some northeastern States actually show higher private school attendance among girls than boys.
• Spending patterns further complicate this picture, especially at the higher secondary level. In States like Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, households invest far more in boys than in girls, even though at the secondary stage spending on girls was higher.
• For example, in Tamil Nadu, families spent an average of ₹23,796 on a girl student in secondary school compared to ₹22,593 on a boy. But at the higher secondary stage, the average expenditure on boys rises to ₹35,973, while it drops to just ₹19,412 for girls.
• This shift partly reflects higher dropout rates among girls at that stage, though government subsidies for girls may also explain some of the gap.
• In Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala, however, higher secondary expenditure on girls surpasses that of boys, particularly in urban areas where transport costs—linked to ensuring girls’ safety—constitute a major share.
• Differences are also stark in private coaching expenditure at higher secondary level. In Himachal Pradesh, families spent an average of ₹9,813 per boy enrolled in tuition compared to only ₹1,550 per girl. States such as Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu also recorded significant gender-based disparities in tuition spending

 

4. Significance of Expenditure on Children's Education 

 

 

• Expenditure on children’s education holds deep significance, not merely as a financial commitment by families but as a long-term social and economic investment.
• The money parents spend on schooling—covering tuition fees, books, uniforms, transport, and private coaching—directly shapes the opportunities available to their children.
• Adequate investment ensures access to better quality schools, trained teachers, and supplementary resources such as private tuitions, which can bridge gaps in classroom learning.
• Conversely, limited spending often restricts children to under-resourced institutions, narrowing their prospects for higher education and future employment.
• At a broader level, household expenditure on education reflects societal priorities and attitudes.
• When families consistently allocate more resources to boys than girls, it reinforces gender inequality and limits the potential of half the population.
• Such disparities not only hinder women’s empowerment but also slow down social development, as educating girls has proven to generate broader benefits such as improved health, reduced fertility rates, and intergenerational literacy.
• The significance also extends to the economic domain. Nations that invest in children’s education build a skilled workforce capable of driving innovation, productivity, and growth.
• Families, through their spending choices, become active participants in this process, complementing state-led investments in public education.
• However, high private expenditure in contexts of inadequate public funding may also deepen inequalities, as wealthier households can afford better schooling and coaching while poorer families are left behind.
• In essence, expenditure on children’s education is not just about meeting present needs—it determines the trajectory of individuals, families, and societies. It is an investment that shapes social mobility, gender equity, and national development, making it one of the most critical areas where both household and state spending converge

 

5. National Sample Survey (NSS)

 

• The National Sample Survey (NSS) is one of the most important large-scale household survey mechanisms in India, designed to generate reliable socio-economic data for policy-making and academic research.
• It was established in 1950, soon after Independence, under the guidance of P.C. Mahalanobis, who recognized the need for systematic and scientific data collection to plan development.
• The NSS is currently conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), which is a part of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
• The survey operates on a round system, with each round focusing on specific themes such as consumption expenditure, employment–unemployment, health, education, housing conditions, social consumption, and industry-specific data. For example, the 80th round (2022–23) included the Comprehensive Modular Survey on Education.
• The significance of the NSS lies in its national coverage, representativeness, and regularity. It covers both rural and urban areas, sampling lakhs of households across all States and Union Territories.
• The findings provide essential inputs for planning, poverty estimation, inequality analysis, welfare schemes, and sectoral studies. Policies like MGNREGA, Right to Education, Food Security Act, and poverty alleviation strategies have drawn heavily on NSS data.
• Over time, the NSS has become a backbone of India’s evidence-based policymaking, complementing Census data and surveys conducted by other agencies like NFHS (National Family Health Survey).
• However, challenges remain, including underreporting, time lag in release of data, and controversies over estimates (e.g., the 2017–18 Consumption Expenditure Survey which was withheld due to data quality concerns)

 

 

 

For Prelims: The Periodic Labour Force Survey, Gender Earnings Gap, Labor force participation rate, Claudia Goldin,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the factors that influence work hours for women in the labour market, considering the role of social norms and responsibilities. What policy measures can be implemented to address these factors and increase women's working hours? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)  1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only     B.  1 and 2 only           C. 1 and 3 only          D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   2. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low Answer: C 3. Which of the following gives ‘Global Gender Gap Index’ ranking to the countries of the world? (UPSC 2017) (a) World Economic Forum (b) UN Human Rights Council (c) UN Women (d) World Health Organization Answer: A 4. Given below are two statements, one is labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC Civil Service 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to the improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from codes given below: Codes:  A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true Answer: C Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

INFANT MORTALITY RATE (IMR)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Kerala’s infant mortality rate is down to 5 per 1,000 live births, according to the Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report-2023.

 

2. What is the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)?

 

• The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is a key demographic and public health indicator that measures the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year and population.
• In simple terms, it tells us how many babies do not survive their first year of life out of every 1,000 babies born alive.
• IMR reflects the overall health status, socio-economic conditions, and quality of healthcare services in a country. High IMR usually indicates issues such as malnutrition, poor maternal health, inadequate healthcare facilities, and lack of sanitation.
• Conversely, a low IMR shows improvements in medical care, immunization, maternal nutrition, and public health policies.
• For India, reducing IMR has been a central goal under various initiatives like the National Health Mission, Janani Suraksha Yojana, and Poshan Abhiyaan, as it is directly linked to the country’s progress on Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being)

 

3. What are the trends in India’s IMR in the last decade as per the SRS, 2023?

 

 

• Over the past decade, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and Karnataka have managed to cut their Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) by more than half, marking the most significant improvements on this key child health indicator.
• According to the 2023 Sample Registration Survey (SRS), India’s IMR has fallen by over 37% in ten years—from 40 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 2013 to 25 in 2023.
• The country’s IMR dropped below the global average around 2021, and its pace of decline has been faster than worldwide trends. However, India still lags behind the Asian average of 17.4 deaths per 1,000 births.
• In the most recent data, the national IMR showed a one-point decline from the previous year, while the average improvement during the last five years has been 1.4 points annually.
• Among the larger states, Kerala stands out with a single-digit IMR—just five deaths per 1,000 live births—a level comparable with developed nations. Yet, Kerala also records the widest gender gap, with IMRs of nine for boys and two for girls.
• Smaller states like Manipur, Sikkim, and Goa, along with nearly all Union Territories, also report single-digit IMRs.
• At the other end of the spectrum, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest IMRs in the country, each at 37, followed by Odisha and Assam, both at 30
• A report published earlier this week notes that the national average infant mortality rate (IMR) stands at 25 deaths per 1,000 live births. Referring to the findings, Kerala’s Health Minister Veena George highlighted that the State’s IMR is even lower than that of the United States, which recorded 5.6 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2022, and reaffirmed that Kerala has the lowest IMR in India.

• Kerala’s success is the outcome of consistent improvements in the health sector over the years. Data from the State’s Department of Economics and Statistics shows that the IMR stood at 7.42 in 2010, briefly rose to 8.2 in 2012, but has steadily declined since then.
• Further, the 2023 State Vital Statistics Report points out that institutional deliveries dominate childbirth practices in Kerala. In rural areas, 96.16% of deliveries took place in healthcare institutions, while in urban areas the figure reached 99.88%, reflecting strong access to maternal and child healthcare facilities

 

4. What are the factors behind the reduction in infant mortality in India?

 

 

The reduction in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India over the past few decades is the outcome of a combination of healthcare interventions, socio-economic progress, and policy focus. Here’s an explanatory account:

 

• Improved antenatal, intranatal, and postnatal care has been central. Schemes like the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) incentivized institutional deliveries and provided free maternal care, reducing risks during childbirth
• A large majority of births now take place in healthcare institutions, supported by programs under the National Health Mission (NHM) and better rural health infrastructure. Institutional births reduce complications, ensure trained attendance, and provide immediate neonatal care
• Expansion of the Universal Immunization Programme and the introduction of Mission Indradhanush helped protect children from life-threatening diseases such as measles, diphtheria, and pneumonia, thereby reducing infant deaths
• The setting up of Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs), Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres (NRCs), and improved access to pediatric services has strengthened survival chances for vulnerable infants
• Government schemes like the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Poshan Abhiyaan, and mid-day meals have improved maternal and child nutrition. Better maternal health directly lowers the risk of premature or underweight babies, a major contributor to infant deaths
• Education of women has led to greater awareness about hygiene, healthcare, and nutrition, resulting in healthier pregnancies and better childcare practices. States with higher female literacy, like Kerala, consistently show lower IMRs
• Flagship initiatives under the National Health Mission, such as the India Newborn Action Plan (2014), set specific targets for reducing neonatal and infant mortality. Regular monitoring through the Sample Registration Survey (SRS) has kept the issue at the forefront of policy action

 

5. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2023 makes it clear that while India has achieved significant progress in reducing its Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), there are still striking differences between states. These interstate disparities arise from a complex interplay of health infrastructure, socio-economic development, governance, and social practices.
• One of the foremost reasons is the variation in healthcare access and quality across states. States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh have built strong public health systems, ensuring trained medical personnel, institutional deliveries, and neonatal care facilities are widely available.
• In contrast, states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh still struggle with underfunded health services, shortages of doctors and nurses, and poor rural health outreach, which contributes to persistently high infant deaths.
• Maternal and child nutrition also plays a decisive role. In states with high rates of malnutrition and anaemia among mothers, babies are more likely to be born underweight or premature, making them vulnerable to infections and early death. This is particularly evident in central and eastern states where poverty, food insecurity, and weaker implementation of nutrition schemes have kept IMR higher.
• Education and awareness further shape these differences. States with high levels of female literacy, such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu, tend to have mothers who are more aware of hygiene, breastfeeding, vaccination, and healthcare needs, directly lowering infant mortality. On the other hand, low female literacy in poorer states often limits health-seeking behaviour, leading to preventable deaths.
• Another factor is infrastructure beyond health services, including sanitation, drinking water, electricity, and transport. Kerala, with nearly universal institutional deliveries, has also ensured that roads and ambulances connect rural households to hospitals.
• In contrast, hilly, tribal, and remote areas in states like Odisha and Madhya Pradesh face access barriers that delay or prevent timely medical intervention.
• Social and cultural practices also shape the gap. In some regions, deep-rooted gender biases lead to differential care for male and female infants.
• The SRS 2023 highlights Kerala as having the lowest IMR overall, but also shows a sharp gender disparity—IMR for boys being higher than for girls. Such gendered patterns differ from state to state, contributing to uneven outcomes.
• Finally, governance and policy prioritisation explain a large part of the difference. States that have consistently invested in health and social welfare—through schemes for maternal care, immunisation drives, and nutrition—show sustained improvements. States where such programs remain weakly implemented or irregularly continue to report higher infant deaths despite overall national progress

 

6. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• Interstate differences in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India arise because health outcomes are shaped by a mix of healthcare access, socio-economic development, nutrition, education, and governance, all of which vary widely across states.
• In states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh, IMR has dropped to single digits because of strong public health systems, high female literacy, widespread institutional deliveries, and effective implementation of maternal and child health schemes.
• These states have invested consistently in healthcare infrastructure, ensured better nutrition through schemes like ICDS and Poshan Abhiyaan, and created social awareness around immunisation, breastfeeding, and hygiene. Kerala, for instance, combines near-universal institutional deliveries with high maternal education levels, giving it one of the lowest IMRs in the country.
• By contrast, states such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha continue to record high IMRs. The reasons include weak health infrastructure, shortage of trained medical staff, poor access to emergency neonatal care, and low coverage of institutional deliveries, especially in rural and tribal belts.
• Malnutrition and maternal anaemia are also more prevalent in these regions, leading to low birth weight and greater vulnerability to infections. Poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water worsen child health outcomes, while low female literacy and limited awareness about healthcare practices restrict preventive care.
• Differences in policy implementation and governance also explain the gaps. States that have prioritised maternal and child health through effective rollout of schemes like Janani Suraksha Yojana, Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, and Mission Indradhanush have seen sharper declines in IMR. Others lag because of weaker monitoring, limited resources, and uneven outreach

 

For Prelims: Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Sample Registration System (SRS), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)   For Mains: GS II -  Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements (UPSC 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome 2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030 Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 Only            B. 2 Only                   C. Both 1 and 2                 D. Neither 1 Nor 2   2. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) of India is released by which of the following office? (NCL Staff Nurse 2020) A. Office of Registrar General of India B. Office of CAG C. Office of Union Health Minister D. Office of Statistical computation of India   Answers: 1-B, 2- A

 

 

Source: Indianexpress