2. Conflict Over Governors' Assent to Bills

• In the ongoing conflict between states governed by opposition parties and their Governors appointed by the President on the Centre's advice, a recent development has emerged.
• Over the past year, several states, including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Punjab, have taken legal recourse by approaching the Supreme Court regarding Governors withholding assent to Bills for extended periods.
• This situation underscores a larger issue concerning the balance of powers and the functioning of state legislatures within India's federal structure.

3. Governor's Role in Lawmaking

• Article 200 of the Constitution delineates the role of the Governor in the legislative process. After a Bill has been passed by the state legislature, it must be presented to the Governor. Subsequently, the Governor holds three options: to give assent to the Bill, withhold assent, or reserve the Bill for consideration by the President.
• In cases where assent is withheld, Article 200 allows the Governor to return the Bill to the legislature, accompanied by a message requesting reconsideration of the Bill or specific provisions. If the Bill is passed again by the legislature, with or without amendments, and presented to the Governor for assent, the Governor is obligated to grant assent.
• However, the absence of a stipulated timeline in the article has led to ambiguity and disputes. Governors have frequently withheld assent to Bills for prolonged periods, leaving them and the state legislature in a state of uncertainty. This lack of clarity has prompted states to seek intervention from the Supreme Court to resolve the issue.

4. President's Role in the Legislative Process

• Article 201 of the Constitution outlines the role of the President in the legislative process, particularly when a Bill is sent for consideration after being passed by a state legislature.
• If a Bill is sent to the President for consideration, the President can choose to either give assent or withhold assent, as specified in Article 201.
• In cases where assent is withheld, the President requests the Governor to return the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
• The state government then has a period of six months to reconsider the Bill; failing to do so results in the Bill lapsing.
• If the Bill is reconsidered and passed once again by the state legislature, it must be sent back to the President for assessment.
• Unlike the Governor, the President is not obliged to give assent when reviewing the reconsidered Bill.
• This scenario represents the only instance where state governments do not have the final say in their own lawmaking process, as the decision ultimately rests with the President.

5. Issues Raised by the Kerala Government

The Kerala government has raised significant concerns regarding the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu, terming them as "manifestly arbitrary" actions that violate fundamental rights and constitutional provisions.

• The petition filed by the Kerala government argues that the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu are "manifestly arbitrary," indicating unreasonable and irrational decision-making. This characterization points to a violation of the right to equality, as such actions lack justification and fairness.
• The Kerala government's petition asserts that the decision to keep Bills pending without making a prompt decision violates Article 200 of the Constitution. The provision mandates that the Governor should decide on Bills "as soon as possible" after presentation. By not adhering to this requirement, the Governor's actions are seen as undermining the functioning of the state legislature and rendering it ineffective.
• The petition further argues that the prolonged withholding of assent by the Governor has subverted the functioning of the state legislature, rendering it ineffective and serving no practical purpose. This challenges the essence of legislative processes and the role of the Governor in the lawmaking procedure.
• Regarding President Murmu's decision to withhold assent to four Bills without providing reasons, the Kerala government contends that this action violates Article 201 of the Constitution. Article 201 stipulates that the President should return a Bill with recommended amendments if the assent is withheld, emphasizing the need for transparency and reasons for such decisions.

6. Governors' Actions and State Governments' Responses

Several states have encountered challenges related to Governors' actions in withholding assent to Bills and other matters, leading to disputes and legal interventions.

• Tamil Nadu's Experience: In November last year, the Supreme Court expressed concern over Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi withholding assent to 10 Bills enacted by the state legislature, some pending since January 2020. This action was criticized for its prolonged nature and lack of reasons provided. Additionally, disputes between Tamil Nadu's DMK government and Governor Ravi have been ongoing, including disagreements over ministerial appointments.
• Telangana's Grievance: Similarly, the Telangana government approached the Supreme Court in March 2023 due to former Governor Tamilisai Soundarajan's refusal to give assent to 10 Bills passed by the legislative assembly. Although Soundarajan eventually gave her assent, the delay and disputes highlighted tensions between the state government and the Governor's office.
• Legal Perspectives and Court Interventions: The issue of elected governments being subject to Governors' decisions, particularly in opposition-led states like Telangana. Despite legal arguments and requests for court directions, the Supreme Court refrained from passing detailed orders, emphasizing the constitutional intent behind timely decision-making as per Article 200.
• Political Dynamics and Future Implications: It's notable that Soundarajan, previously involved in assent disputes, is now a BJP candidate for the Lok Sabha elections. This political context adds complexity to the relationship between state governments and Governors, highlighting the ongoing challenges and potential implications for governance and constitutional principles.

7. Governor's Authority in Withholding Assent to Bills

• In November 2023, the Supreme Court deliberated on the issue of whether a Governor could withhold assent to Bills passed by the state legislature if they believed the session where the Bills were passed was convened illegally.
• This matter arose from Punjab, where Governor Banwarilal Purohit refused to give assent to four Bills passed by the Punjab Assembly, citing legal advice indicating a breach of law and procedure in their passage. Despite this, the Bills were not returned to the Assembly for reconsideration.
• The Supreme Court ruled that Governors do not possess the authority to obstruct the regular process of lawmaking by state legislatures.
• It clarified that the phrase "as soon as possible" in Article 200 implies that Governors cannot indefinitely delay action on Bills without any justification.
• The court emphasized that if a Governor chooses to withhold assent, they must adhere to the procedure outlined in the first proviso of Article 200, which involves returning the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
• While the court outlined the responsibilities of Governors in the lawmaking process, it refrained from specifying a definitive timeline for Governors to make decisions on Bills.
• This omission has prompted the Kerala government to approach the Supreme Court seeking clarification on the issue.

8. The Way Forward

Addressing the challenges related to the Governor's assent requires a multi-dimensional approach that balances constitutional mandates, legal clarity, political responsibility, and public participation. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders and judicious use of constitutional mechanisms are key to ensuring robust and accountable governance in the legislative domain.

QUANTUM COMPUTING

1. Context 

• Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers. 
• IBM Quantum makes real quantum hardware a tool scientists only began to imagine three decades ago available to hundreds of thousands of developers.
• Engineers deliver ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical orchestration.
• This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity necessary to change the world. 
• These machines are very different from the classical computers that have been around for more than half a century.

Image Source: IBM

3. Need for quantum computers

• For some problems, supercomputers aren’t that super. When scientists and engineers encounter difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers.
• These are very large classical computers, often with thousands of classical CPU and GPU cores. However, even supercomputers struggle to solve certain kinds of problems.
• If a supercomputer gets stumped, that's probably because the big classical machine was asked to solve a problem with a high degree of complexity. When classical computers fail, it's often due to complexity
• Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways.
• Modelling the behaviour of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because of all the different electrons interacting with one another.
• Sorting out the ideal routes for a few hundred tankers in a global shipping network is complex too.

4. Quantum computers work

• Quantum computers are elegant machines, smaller and requiring less energy than supercomputers.
• An IBM Quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the one found in a laptop.
• And a quantum hardware system is about the size of a car, made up mostly of cooling systems to keep the superconducting processor at its ultra-cold operational temperature.
• A classical processor uses bits to perform its operations. A quantum computer uses qubits (CUE-bits) to run multidimensional quantum algorithms.

4.1. Superfluids

• A desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work.
• Quantum processors need to be very cold about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero.
• To achieve this, we use super-cooled superfluids to create superconductors.

4.2. Superconductors

• At those ultra-low temperatures, certain materials in our processors exhibit another important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without resistance. This makes them "superconductors." 
• When electrons pass through superconductors they match up, forming "Cooper pairs."
• These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process known as quantum tunnelling.
• Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator form a Josephson junction.

4.3. Control

• Our quantum computers use Josephson junctions as superconducting qubits.
• By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control their behaviour and get them to hold, change, and read out individual units of quantum information.

4.4. Superposition

• A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can perform an important trick: placing the quantum information it holds into a state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of the qubit.
• Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these spaces.

4.5. Entanglement

• Entanglement is a quantum mechanical effect that correlates the behaviour of two separate things.
• When two qubits are entangled, changes to one qubit directly impact the other.
• Quantum algorithms leverage those relationships to find solutions to complex problems.

5. Making quantum computers useful

• Right now, IBM Quantum leads the world in quantum computing hardware and software. It is a clear and detailed plan to scale quantum processors, overcomes the scaling problem, and build the hardware necessary for quantum advantage.
• Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone.
• IBM has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to do useful work using quantum computers.
• They developed the Qiskit quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most widely-used quantum SDK in the world.
• The Qiskit Runtime is the most powerful quantum programming model in the world.
• Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and classical resources.

 

For Prelims: Quantum computing, supercomputers, Qiskit Runtime, IBM, National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications, superconductors,  For Mains:  1. What is Quantum computing? Discuss the need for Quantum Computers in emerging countries like India. (250 Words) 2. What are quantum computers and how are they different from conventional computers? Where does India stand in the race to build quantum computers that can realise their full potential? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. India's first Supercomputer is  (TSPSC AEE 2015) A. Aditya B. Param Yuva C.  Param D. Vikram-100 Answer: C   2. What is the full form of IBM? (SSC Steno  2017)  A. International Business Machine B. Indian Beta Machine C. Integral Business Machine D. Internal Beta Machine   Answer: A   3. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC 2022)  A. Cloud Services B. Quantum Computing C. Visible Light Communication Technologies D. Wireless Communication Technologies   Answer: B   4. Quantum computing uses  (ACC 124 CGAT  2021) A. Qubit B. Bits C. Bytes D. Qubytes   Answer: A

 

Source: IBM

 

 

GANGOTRI GLACIER SYSTEM (GGS)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

A recent study has reconstructed the long-term discharge flow of the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), the source of the upper Ganga basin which contributes to the waters of the Bhagirathi river in the central Himalayas. In the wake of climate change, glaciologists the world over have been studying the impact of glacier melt.

 

2. Gangotri Glacier System (GGS)

 

 

• The Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) is one of the largest glacier systems in the Himalayas and holds immense significance both geographically and culturally. Stretching nearly 30 kilometers in length, it serves as the primary source of the river Bhagirathi, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga, a river deeply revered in Indian civilization.
• Located in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand, the glacier lies in the Garhwal Himalayas at an altitude ranging from about 7,100 meters at its highest peaks to 4,000 meters at its snout, known as Gomukh, which literally means “cow’s mouth” due to its distinct shape. The glacier system is fed by several tributary glaciers such as Raktvarn, Chaturangi, and Kirti, which together form the vast Gangotri Glacier complex.
• Like other Himalayan glaciers, the GGS is highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Over the decades, it has been retreating at a significant rate, largely due to rising global temperatures and local anthropogenic pressures.
• This retreat is a matter of concern because the glacier not only sustains perennial river systems but also supports millions of people who depend on the waters of the Ganga for agriculture, drinking water, and hydroelectric power.
• Apart from its hydrological importance, the Gangotri Glacier holds a sacred place in Indian culture and mythology. It is considered the mythological abode where the Ganga descended to Earth, sanctified by Lord Shiva, before flowing across the plains. Thus, it is both a lifeline and a spiritual symbol for the people of India

 

3. Significance of Gangotri Glacier System (GGS)

 

• The snow and ice reserves of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) play a vital role in feeding major river systems such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. In recent decades, however, the region has witnessed significant climatic variations that have reshaped the cryosphere and disrupted the hydrological cycle.
• These changes have altered the functioning of glacier-fed river systems, leading to faster glacial retreat and shifts in seasonal water discharge.
• To understand these impacts, researchers often rely on modelling studies, which provide theoretical assessments of changing hydrological patterns. Yet, due to the vast size of these river basins, it is difficult to accurately measure river flow and separate the contributions of snowmelt from that of rainfall.
• Smaller glacier systems, like the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), offer a more manageable scale for such assessments, making them a preferred subject of study among hydrologists and climate scientists.
• In this context, a recent study titled “Hydrological Contributions of Snow and Glacier Melt from the Gangotri Glacier System and Their Climatic Controls Since 1980” seeks to address this knowledge gap.
• Conducted by researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, the Universities of Utah and Dayton (U.S.), and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, the study has been published in the Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing

 

4. Findings of the Study

 

• The study reconstructed the long-term discharge patterns of the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) using a high-resolution glacio-hydrological model known as Spatial Processes in Hydrology (SPHY).
• This model simulates various components of the terrestrial water balance, including rainfall-runoff, evapotranspiration, and cryospheric processes. To enhance accuracy, it was combined with the Indian Monsoon Data Assimilation and Analysis (IMDAA) dataset covering the period from 1980 to 2020.
• The results revealed that the GGS records its maximum discharge during the summer season, with a peak flow in July reaching about 129 cubic metres per second. On average, the annual discharge over the four decades was calculated at 28±1.9 m³/s, with snowmelt making the largest contribution (64%), followed by glacier melt (21%), rainfall-runoff (11%), and base flow (4%).
• A decade-wise examination highlighted a shift in the discharge peak from August to July after the 1990s, a change linked to reduced winter precipitation and increased early summer melting.
• Further, the mean decadal discharge indicated the sharpest rise—about 7.8%—between the periods 1991–2000 and 2001–2010. While the data reflected a steady rise in mean annual temperatures, there was no significant long-term trend in either annual precipitation or glacier melt.
• Interestingly, snowmelt contributions declined despite warming, primarily due to a reduction in the average snow cover area. In contrast, both rainfall-runoff and base flow showed an increasing pattern from 1980 to 2020.
• Statistical correlations from the study suggested that the mean annual discharge of GGS is primarily influenced by summer precipitation, with winter temperature being the secondary factor

5. Other important glaciers in the Himalayas

 

• The Himalayas, often called the “Third Pole,” are home to thousands of glaciers that act as crucial freshwater reserves, feeding some of the largest river systems of South Asia.
• These glaciers not only sustain perennial rivers such as the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra but also serve as important indicators of climate change because of their sensitivity to temperature and precipitation variations.
• Apart from the Gangotri Glacier System, several other glaciers hold immense geographical, hydrological, and cultural importance. The Siachen Glacier, located in the eastern Karakoram range, is the second-longest glacier outside the polar regions, stretching about 76 kilometers.
• It is strategically significant as it lies near the India-Pakistan-China tri-junction, making it one of the most militarized zones in the world.
• Another important glacier is the Baltoro Glacier, also situated in the Karakoram. It is famous for being surrounded by some of the highest peaks of the world, including K2. To the west, the Biafo Glacier connects with the Hispar Glacier, forming one of the longest glacial systems outside the poles.
• In the central Himalayas, the Pindari Glacier in Uttarakhand is a well-known source of the Pindar River and is popular among trekkers. The Milam Glacier, also in Uttarakhand, is another major glacier feeding the Gori Ganga River. The Zemu Glacier in Sikkim, lying on the eastern Himalayas, is the largest glacier in the region and contributes significantly to the Teesta River.
• In the Kashmir Himalayas, glaciers like the Kolhoi Glacier in Lidder Valley and the Drang-Drung Glacier in the Zanskar region are vital for local river systems. The Dokriani Glacier near Gangotri is often used by scientists as a benchmark glacier to study retreat and climatic effects in the Garhwal Himalayas.
• Collectively, these glaciers form the backbone of water security in the Indian subcontinent, regulating river flow, supporting agriculture, hydropower, and drinking water needs for millions of people downstream.
• However, many of them are retreating rapidly due to global warming, making their conservation and continuous monitoring a pressing environmental concern

 

6. Way Forward

 

The Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) has shown a rising trend in rainfall-runoff and base flow, pointing towards hydrological changes linked to warming conditions. This year, the summer monsoon in northern India has been unusually intense, recording about 25% higher rainfall than the seasonal average between June and August. The region has witnessed several severe flooding events in Uttarakhand, Jammu, and Himachal Pradesh, which local authorities frequently describe as ‘cloudbursts.’ However, such labels are often made without scientific evidence, since neither ground-based instruments nor satellite data are available to confirm them. By definition, a cloudburst refers to an extreme weather event where more than 10 cm of rainfall occurs within an hour over an area smaller than 30 square kilometers

 

 

For Prelims: Gangotri Glacier System, Siachen Glacier, Indian Monsoon Data Assimilation and Analysis (IMDAA)   For Mains: GS I - Geography

 

Source: The Hindu

 

RESERVATIONS AND A CAP OF 50 PERCENT

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The leader of the opposition in Bihar, Tejashwi Yadav, has declared that if voted to power, their alliance would increase reservation to 85%. In another development, the Supreme Court has issued notice to the Union government on a petition demanding the introduction of a ‘system’ similar to the ‘creamy layer’ for reservations among the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST)

 

 

2. Constitutional provisions regarding reservation

 

 

• Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution uphold the principle of equality for all citizens in matters of state action, such as admissions to educational institutions and employment in the public sector.
• At the same time, these provisions empower the state to introduce special measures aimed at promoting the welfare of socially and educationally disadvantaged groups, including Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• Over the years, several key developments have shaped the reservation framework at the central level.
• Currently, the reservation quotas in central government institutions are — 27% for OBCs, 15% for SCs, 7.5% for STs, and 10% for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), amounting to a total of 59.5%.
• However, the percentage of reservations differs across States depending on their population composition and specific policy decisions

 

3. Court rulings

 

• The debate stems from two different interpretations of equality — formal equality and substantive equality. In Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962), the Supreme Court held that reservations under Articles 15 and 16 for backward classes must remain “within reasonable limits” and be balanced with the overall interests of society.
• The Court also observed that reservations should not cross 50%, reflecting a notion of formal equality where reservations are treated as exceptions to equal opportunity.
• By contrast, substantive equality recognizes that merely ensuring formal equality is inadequate to bridge the historical gap between privileged groups and marginalized communities.
• In State of Kerala v. N.M. Thomas (1975), a seven-judge Bench highlighted this perspective, stating that reservations are not an exception but an extension of the principle of equality. However, since the ceiling limit was not directly under consideration in this case, the Court did not make a binding pronouncement on that aspect.
• In Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992), a nine-judge Bench upheld the 27% quota for OBCs and ruled that caste, in the Indian context, is an indicator of social and educational backwardness.
• The Court reaffirmed the 50% ceiling on reservations (as established in Balaji) but allowed exceptions in extraordinary situations. It also introduced the concept of excluding the “creamy layer” among OBCs.
• More recently, in Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022), a 3:2 majority upheld the constitutionality of the 10% reservation for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
• The Court clarified that economic criteria could serve as the basis for affirmative action and further reasoned that the 50% limit applied to reservations for backward classes, while EWS forms a distinct category within the unreserved sections

 

4. Article 15 and Article 16

 

Article 15 – Prohibition of Discrimination

• Provision: Prohibits the State from discriminating against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.

• Scope: Applies to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, and places of public entertainment, as well as the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads, etc. maintained wholly or partly out of State funds.

• Special Provisions Allowed:

  • Reservation and special measures for socially and educationally backward classes (SEBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

  • Special provisions for women and children.

  • The 103rd Constitutional Amendment (2019) introduced reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)

Article 16 – Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment

• Provision: Ensures equality of opportunity for all citizens in public employment and prohibits discrimination in matters relating to employment or office under the State.

• Special Provisions Allowed:

  • Reservation of posts in favor of backward classes not adequately represented in services.

  • Preference for residents of a State/Union Territory in certain cases.

  • Parliament may legislate for reservation in promotions (e.g., 77th Amendment, 1995 allowing reservation in promotion for SCs and STs)

 

5. Arguments regarding increasing the cap of 50%

 

• In his Constituent Assembly address in November 1948, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar defended the necessity of reservations for historically disadvantaged groups, emphasizing that such measures should remain limited to a minority so as to preserve the principle of equality of opportunity.
• Over time, however, there has been growing pressure to expand reservation quotas beyond the judicial ceiling of 50% so that they align more closely with the actual share of backward classes in the population.
• This has fueled demands for a caste-based census to generate reliable data rather than relying on broad estimates. Yet, government replies in Parliament reveal that 40–50% of the seats reserved for OBCs, SCs, and STs at the Central level often remain vacant.
• Another major concern is the unequal distribution of reservation benefits.
• The Rohini Commission, tasked with examining sub-categorisation within OBCs, found that nearly 97% of reserved jobs and educational seats are concentrated among about 25% of OBC communities, while close to 1,000 out of 2,600 OBC groups have no representation in either domain.
• Similar patterns are visible within SCs and STs. Unlike OBCs, there is currently no “creamy layer” exclusion for SC and ST reservations. In State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2024), a majority of judges suggested that the Centre should consider policy measures to exclude the creamy layer from SC and ST quotas.
• Nevertheless, in August 2024, the Union Cabinet clarified that the creamy layer principle does not apply to these groups.
• Opponents of extending the creamy layer concept to SCs and STs contend that vacancies in these categories are already underfilled, and hence, the issue of relatively better-off members monopolizing opportunities is less relevant.
• They also warn that applying such exclusion may aggravate the backlog of vacancies, which could eventually be converted into unreserved posts—undermining the representation guaranteed to SCs and STs

 

6. Way forward

 

 

The right to equality of opportunity is a guaranteed fundamental right, and raising the reservation quota to as high as 85% could be seen as infringing upon this principle. At the same time, the pursuit of substantive equality through affirmative action remains essential for uplifting disadvantaged groups. After the 2027 Census, which is expected to include data on backward classes, there should be broad-based consultations with stakeholders to determine an appropriate level of reservation. Alongside this, the sub-categorisation of OBCs, as recommended by the Rohini Commission and informed by census findings, must be implemented. For SCs and STs, the idea of a ‘two-tier’ reservation model—where the most marginalised sections receive priority before benefits extend to relatively better-off groups—could be considered to ensure more equitable distribution across generations.

At the same time, policymakers must recognise that reservations alone cannot address the employment aspirations of India’s growing youth population, especially given the limited opportunities in the public sector. A strong emphasis on skill development and capacity building is vital so that young people can access meaningful and sustainable employment opportunities beyond the reservation framework

 

Source: The Hindu

 

INDIA SEMICONDUCTOR MISSION (ISM)

 

 

1. Context

 

Union Cabinet approved the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) with a ₹76,000 crore outlay to boost fabrication, design, and manufacturing

 

2. Semiconductors

 

 

 

• Semiconductors form the backbone of modern technology, driving critical sectors such as healthcare, transport, communication, defence, and space. With increasing digitalization and automation worldwide, they have become vital for both economic security and strategic autonomy.
• Since the launch of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) in 2021, India has rapidly advanced from vision to execution in its semiconductor roadmap.
• To accelerate this effort, the government rolled out a ₹76,000 crore Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, of which nearly ₹65,000 crore has already been allocated.
• As part of these initiatives, Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate SEMICON India 2025 on September 2 in New Delhi. Marking its fourth edition, the event will be the country’s largest, bringing together 350+ companies from 33 nations and numerous global stakeholders.
• Jointly organized by ISM under the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) and SEMI, the global semiconductor association, this event underscores India’s ambition to emerge as a global hub.
• A significant milestone was also achieved on August 28, 2025, with the launch of one of India’s first Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test (OSAT) Pilot Line Facilities in Sanand, Gujarat. From this facility, CG-Semi is expected to deliver the first “Made in India” chip.
• India’s push spans chip design, packaging, and fabrication, signaling its determination to achieve self-reliance. Under the Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, 23 chip design projects have been sanctioned to support startups and innovators.
• Firms like Vervesemi Microelectronics are developing advanced chips for defence, aerospace, electric vehicles, and energy solutions, highlighting India’s shift from being merely a consumer to becoming a global semiconductor creator

 

3. SEMICON India Programme

 

• The Government of India has introduced the SEMICON India Programme with an outlay of ₹76,000 crore, carried out under the framework of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM).
• SEMICON India serves as a platform that brings together global industry leaders, policymakers, academic institutions, and startups to encourage investment, facilitate dialogue, and build strategic partnerships.
• It plays a pivotal role in furthering ISM’s objectives by promoting international collaborations, driving research-to-market transitions, strengthening skill development, and highlighting India’s emerging position in the global semiconductor supply chain.
• So far, three editions of SEMICON India have been successfully organized — Bangalore (2022), Gandhinagar (2023), and Greater Noida (2024). The upcoming SEMICON India 2025 will underscore India’s evolving role in the semiconductor ecosystem worldwide.
• Over three days, the event will convene policymakers, innovators, industry leaders, academic researchers, and other stakeholders to foster collaboration and technological progress across the value chain.
• It is expected to attract strong participation from business executives, equipment manufacturers, design professionals, scientists, engineers, researchers, students, and technicians linked to the microelectronics sector

 

4. Significance of the Semiconductor Industry

 

• Semiconductors are unique materials with the ability to function as both conductors and insulators, allowing them to regulate the flow of electricity—making them ideal for electronic circuits.
• When billions of these are embedded in a single chip, they enable devices to perform complex tasks such as making phone calls, capturing photos, or even guiding a spacecraft’s landing, as seen in Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander, which relied on Indian-built technology and AI.
• A semiconductor chip can be imagined as a miniature city, filled with billions of transistors—tiny switches—and countless intricate components working in harmony. From smartphones and electric vehicles to national defence systems, these chips act as the hidden engines of modern life.
• They form the backbone of contemporary technology, supporting healthcare, transportation, defence, and space exploration. With the world moving rapidly towards digitalisation and automation, semiconductors have become central to economic security and strategic autonomy.
• The global shortages witnessed during the Covid-19 pandemic and the Ukraine conflict highlighted their importance, as disruptions hit electronics manufacturing worldwide.
• Demand for smaller, faster, and more efficient chips is being driven by the growth of smart devices and artificial intelligence, which requires high-performance chips for real-time data processing.
• At present, semiconductor production is dominated by Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, China, and the US. Taiwan alone produces over 60% of the world’s chips and nearly 90% of the most advanced variants, exposing global supply chains to significant vulnerabilities.
• To counter this, countries—including India—are investing in domestic semiconductor manufacturing and working to diversify supply chains, aiming to build a more secure and resilient global ecosystem for the future

 

5. Semiconductor Market and India as a Player

 

The global demand for semiconductors is rising rapidly, yet the supply chain remains highly vulnerable due to the industry being concentrated in just a few regions. This highlights the urgent need for diversified global manufacturing.

India is steadily emerging as a significant player in this space. Initiatives such as prioritizing Electronics Systems Design and Manufacturing (ESDM) under the Make in India programme, along with the India Semiconductor Mission and SEMICON India, have helped build a supportive ecosystem for the sector.

The global semiconductor market is projected to reach USD 1 trillion by 2030, with India poised to capture a notable share. The country has the potential to contribute significantly across the three main pillars of the semiconductor manufacturing supply chain:

• Equipment – Leveraging a robust MSME sector to manufacture components for semiconductor machinery.

• Materials – Utilizing India’s abundant chemicals, minerals, and specialty gases essential for semiconductor production.

• Services – Offering expertise in R&D, logistics, supply chain management, and a skilled workforce in AI, big data, cloud computing, and IoT

 

6. India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

 

 

• Building on the rapid progress of its semiconductor journey, India is undergoing a transformative shift to emerge as a global leader in chip design, packaging, and manufacturing of Made in India chips.
• With the growing adoption of intelligent chips, the country is enhancing its packaging technologies to compete globally. In fabrication, India is transitioning from conventional silicon-based semiconductors to advanced Silicon Carbide (SiC) semiconductors, while in design, it plans to implement 3D glass packaging technology.
• Silicon Carbide offers greater stability and durability than traditional silicon, tolerating temperatures up to 2,400°C and high-voltage conditions, making it crucial for defence systems, missiles, radars, and space rockets.
• Thanks to coordinated industry efforts, India is set to roll out its first domestically made chip soon. These developments will establish India as a global hub for semiconductor design, fabrication, and manufacturing.
• The India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) supports investments in semiconductor fabrication, display manufacturing, and chip design, aiming to strengthen India’s position in the global electronics value chain.
• Guided by global experts, ISM seeks to build a robust semiconductor and display ecosystem and serves as the nodal agency for efficient implementation of related schemes.
• Currently, India has 10 approved semiconductor projects across six states, including its first commercial Silicon Carbide fabrication plant in Odisha and an advanced packaging unit introducing next-generation technologies.
• Together, these projects involve investments of ₹1.60 lakh crore, positioning India alongside global semiconductor leaders.

Key focus areas of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM):

• Establishing chip manufacturing plants (fabs)

• Developing packaging and testing facilities

• Supporting chip design startups

• Training young engineers

• Encouraging global companies to invest in India

 

7. Objectives of ISM

 

• Develop a long-term roadmap for building sustainable semiconductor and display manufacturing facilities, along with a robust semiconductor design ecosystem in India.

• Support the creation of a secure and trusted microelectronics supply chain, covering raw materials, specialty chemicals, gases, and manufacturing equipment.

• Drive exponential growth in India’s semiconductor design sector by offering essential support such as Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools, foundry services, and other mechanisms for early-stage startups.

• Promote the generation of indigenous Intellectual Property (IP) within the semiconductor and display industry.

• Facilitate and incentivize Technology Transfer (ToT) from global and domestic sources.

• Create mechanisms to leverage economies of scale within India’s semiconductor and display industry.

• Encourage cutting-edge research in both evolutionary and revolutionary semiconductor and display technologies through grants, international collaborations, and dedicated initiatives in academia, research institutions, and industry, including the establishment of Centres of Excellence (CoEs).

• Foster collaborations and partnerships with national and international agencies, industries, and institutions to accelerate research, commercialization, and skill development

 

8. Way Forward

 

India’s ambitious semiconductor initiative, highlighted by SEMICON India 2025, marks a transformative phase in the country’s pursuit of technological self-reliance and innovation. Supported by government programs such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, significant financial investments, and strategic allocation of resources, India is building a comprehensive semiconductor ecosystem. This approach not only ensures prudent investment but also strengthens the foundation for a resilient semiconductor industry capable of powering sectors from electronics to automobiles.

Beyond just chips, SEMICON India 2025 symbolizes India’s drive toward self-sufficiency, innovation, and global leadership. By promoting “Designed and Made in India” technologies, the event underscores the country’s ambition to shape the future of the global semiconductor landscape and position itself as a key player in this critical strategic sector

 

 

For Prelims: Semiconductor, Transistors, Fabrication Technology   For Mains:  1. Discuss the recent global chip shortage and its implications for India's semiconductor industry. What steps has India taken to enhance its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities? (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which of the following fabrication techniques is ideally suited for digital ICs? (KVS TGT WET 2017)   A. Monolithic        B. Thin film      C. Hybrid              D. Thin film and hybrid   Answer: A

 

Source: pib

 

CENSUS 2027

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Registrar General of India (RGI) has sought a Rs 14,618.95-crore budget to conduct the Census 2027, which will be the first “Digital Census” and collect data on caste

 

2. Registrar General of India

 

 

• The Indian Census is the world’s largest administrative and statistical exercise. The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India (ORG&CCI), under the Ministry of Home Affairs, is tasked with conducting the decennial census.

• As per the Census India website, prior to 1951, a temporary Census Organisation was set up for each census. In 1948, the Census Act was enacted to establish a structured process for conducting population censuses and to define the responsibilities of census officials.

• To systematically collect data on population size, growth, and related statistics, the Government of India decided in May 1949 to create an organisation within the Ministry of Home Affairs under the Registrar General and ex-Officio Census Commissioner.

• This body was tasked with generating population statistics, including vital statistics and census data, and was later given the responsibility to implement the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969 across the country.

• Mritunjay Kumar Narayan is the current RGI, assuming office on November 1, 2022. His tenure was extended last year until August 4, 2026, or until further orders.

• According to the Census India website, the RGI’s office oversees the following key functions:

  • Housing & Population Census: The Census Commissioner is the statutory authority responsible for conducting the Housing & Population Census under the Census Act, 1948 and its rules.

  • Civil Registration System (CRS): As Registrar General of India under the Registration of Births & Deaths (RBD) Act, 1969, the RGI ensures the compulsory registration of births and deaths, coordinating civil registration and vital statistics across all States and Union Territories.

  • National Population Register (NPR): Prepared under the Citizenship Rules, 2003, the NPR collects information on all individuals who are usually resident in India, as part of the broader Citizenship Act, 1955 framework.

  • Mother Tongue Survey: This survey records mother tongues consistently reported across multiple Census decades and documents linguistic features of selected languages.

  • Sample Registration System (SRS): The ORG&CCI implements the SRS, a large-scale sample survey conducted semi-annually to estimate vital statistics such as birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate, and maternal mortality rate at the state level

 

3. History of Census in India

 

• India’s first nationwide census, though non-synchronous, was carried out in 1872. It attempted to count people across most regions of the country, but some areas under British rule were not covered.

• The first synchronous census of India was conducted in 1881 under the supervision of W.C. Plowden.

• The 1881 Census represented a major step toward a modern, coordinated census system, focusing not only on complete population coverage but also on the classification of demographic, social, and economic features

 

4. Census 2027

 

 

• The Census 2027 will mark India’s 16th decennial Census overall and the eighth since Independence. The exercise will gather population data at the village, town, and ward levels, covering parameters such as housing conditions, amenities, assets, demographic characteristics, religion, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, language, literacy and education, economic activity, migration, and fertility.

• On June 16, the Centre officially notified its plan to conduct the Census 2027. This marks the first time a decennial Census has been delayed by six years. Some key features of the upcoming Census include:

  • Digital Census: For the first time, Census 2027 will be fully digital, with data collected via dedicated mobile applications. Citizens will also have the option to self-enumerate, and caste data will be recorded electronically.

  • Caste enumeration: On April 30, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) approved the inclusion of caste data in the Census.

  • Real-time monitoring and management: The Registrar General of India (RGI) is developing a Census Monitoring & Management System (CMMS) website to enable real-time oversight of the exercise. Over 35 lakh enumerators and supervisors will be deployed, which is more than 30% higher than the 27 lakh personnel used for the 2011 Census

 

5.  NPR

• The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
• Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
• According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
• Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
•  Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
• In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
• There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
• Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.

5.1. The current status of NPR

• The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
• It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
• In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
• The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
• For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
• The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
• The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
• The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
• Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
• The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
• The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
• The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.

 

 

 

For Prelims: NPR, CAA, Census, Covid-19, Expenditure Finance Committee, Registrar General of India, Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969, The Treatise on Indian Censuses Since 1981, Assam,  For Mains: 1. How can citizens file Census details online? Explain the norms being laid down and discuss the reasons for National Population Register being made compulsory for those who want to fill out the form digitally. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   Prelims:   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2009) 1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times. 2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only          (b) 2 only                 (c) Both 1 and 2                 (d) Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform. 2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform. 3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 and 3 only                   C. 1 and 3 only              D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   3. Sinovac given for Covid-19 is a  (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022) A. Protein sub-unit B. Non-replicating viral vector C. Whole virus vaccine D. mRNA vaccine   Answer: C   4. Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the Parliament which Include "The Macro Economic Framework Statement". The aforesaid document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC 2020)  A. Long-standing parliamentary convention B. Article 112 and Article 110 (1) of the Constitution of India C. Article 113 of the Constitution of India D. Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 Answer: D   5. Who is the Census Commissioner of India in 2021? (ICAR Technician 2022) A. Dr Vivek Joshi B. Dr C Chandramouli C. Shri Sailesh D. DK Sikri   Answer: A   6. The Registration of Birth and Death Act came into force in the year _____. (UPSSSC Junior Assistant 2020)  A. 1964      B. 1969    C.  1972        D.1981   Answer: B   7. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2022) 1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Kerala 3. Himachal Pradesh 4. Tripura How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States? A. Only one State B. Only two States C. Only three States D. All four States   Answer: C   8. Consider the following rivers (UPSC 2014)  1. Barak 2. Lohit 3. Subansiri Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh?  A. 1 only    B.2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only      D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   Mains: 1. Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth. (UPSC 2014)

 

Source: The Hindu