POCSO ACT
1. Context
Declaring that the offence of penetrative sexual assault can be alleged against a woman under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, as this law is gender-neutral, the Karnataka High Court on Monday refused to quash a criminal case against a 52-year-old woman, who allegedly compelled a 13-year-old boy for sex with her at her residence during 2020.
2. Development of Legislation Against Child Sexual Abuse in India
Constitutional Provisions and International Commitments
- The Constitution of India includes provisions to protect children's rights.
- India has ratified international instruments like the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Protocol on the Sale of Children.
Lack of Dedicated Provision
- India lacked specific legislation addressing child sexual abuse.
- Cases were tried under various provisions of the Indian Penal Code, which were deemed insufficient.
Goa Incident and State-Level Response
- A child sexual abuse racket was exposed in Goa during the 1990s.
- The state government responded by enacting a law in 2003 to promote child rights.
Children's Code Bill, 2000
- The Special Expert Committee under Justice VR Krishna Iyer drafted the Children's Code Bill, presenting a comprehensive framework for child rights in India.
Draft Bill Addressing Offences Against Children
- In 2005, the Department of Women and Child Development prepared a draft bill to address different offenses targeted against children.
Study of Child Abuse Report (2007)
- Published by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
- Covered 13 states with a sample size of 12,447 children, 2,324 young adults, and 2,449 stakeholders.
- Found that 50.76% of children surveyed reported experiencing one or more forms of sexual abuse.
- Boys reported a higher overall percentage of sexual abuse than girls, contrary to prevailing perceptions.
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Bill, 2010
- In September 2010, the Ministry of Women and Child Development prepared a draft bill.
- After several revisions, it came into force as the POCSO Act on Children's Day (November 14, 2012).
3. Analysis of POCSO Act Trials and Case Characteristics
- Acquittals and Convictions: Analysis shows that 43.44% of trials under the POCSO Act end in acquittals, while only 14.03% end in convictions. For every one conviction, there are three acquittals, indicating a significant disparity.
- State-wise Disparity in Acquittals and Convictions: Acquittals are significantly higher than convictions in all states studied. Examples: In Andhra Pradesh, acquittals are seven times more than convictions, and in West Bengal, acquittals are five times more than convictions. Kerala has a relatively lower gap, with acquittals constituting 20.5% and convictions constituting 16.49% of total disposals.
- Relationship Between Victim and Accused: Out of 138 examined judgments, only 6% of cases involved accused who were strangers to the victim. In 44% of cases, the relationship between the victim and accused was unidentified. Known acquaintances constituted 22.9% of the accused, family members accounted for 3.7%, and cases with prior romantic relationships made up 18%.
- Age Distribution of Victims and Accused: Among the 138 cases studied, 5.47% of victims were under 10 years, 17.8% were between 10-15 years, and 28% were between 15-18 years. The age of the victim was unidentified in 48% of cases. Age details of accused individuals were not identified in 63.6% of cases. Identified age ranges of accused: 11.6% between 19-25 years, 10.9% between 25-35 years, 6.1% between 35-45 years, and 6.8% above 45 years.
- Offenses and Severity: Penetrative sexual assault (31.18%) and aggravated penetrative sexual assault (25.59%) collectively account for over half of all POCSO cases. These offenses carry the most stringent punishments under the POCSO Act.
4. Analysis of POCSO Case Disposal and Pendency
- Delayed Disposal: On average, it takes 509.78 days for a POCSO case to be disposed of, exceeding the one-year stipulated timeframe under the Act.
- Increase in Pending Cases: The pendency of POCSO cases had been gradually increasing over the years. Notably, there was a sharp rise in pending cases between 2019 and 2020, attributed to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Reasons for Delay: Slow pace of police investigation and delays in depositing samples with Forensic Science Laboratories were identified as primary reasons for case delays.
- Transfers of Cases: 22.76% of cases were disposed of through transfers from one court to another. One-fifth of the cases in the dataset ended in transfers, indicating administrative mismanagement or wrongful appreciation of facts by the police.
- Increasing Transfer Trend: The percentage of transfers out of total disposals was around 8% in 2013 but rose to a little over 19% in 2019 and a concerning 42% in 2020. This trend is seen as problematic due to the time wasted as cases are transferred between courts.
5. POCSO Trials and Case Statistics in India
- Delhi's POCSO Trials and Case Length: Delhi has the highest number of POCSO trials in the country, with 13.54 cases per 100,000 population in 2018. However, Delhi also had the highest average case length in 2020, at 1,284.33 days.
- Average Time for Convictions: Chandigarh and West Bengal are the only states where the average time taken for convictions is within one year. States like Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Kerala, Sikkim, Chandigarh, and the NCT of Delhi have a higher reporting of POCSO cases.
- Districts with the Highest Number of POCSO Trials: The five districts with the highest number of POCSO trials (pending and disposed of) are Namchi (Sikkim), New Delhi, Central Delhi, Medak (Telangana), and West Garo Hills (Meghalaya).
- Pendency and Disposal Rates: Uttar Pradesh has the highest pendency, with 77.77% of the total POCSO cases filed between November 2012 and February 2021 pending. Tamil Nadu has the highest disposal percentage at 80.2%.
- Districts with Highest Pendency Percentages: The five districts with the highest pendency percentages include Lucknow, Hardoi, Budaun, and Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh and Howrah in West Bengal.
6. Gaps in Implementation
- Absence of Support Persons: According to the study, "support persons" are not appointed in most POCSO cases. The Supreme Court highlighted that in 96% of cases, victims were not provided with a support person.
- Role of support Persons: A support person can be an individual or organization working in child rights or protection, an official from a children's home or shelter home. or a staff member of the District Child Protection Unit (DCPU). Their role is to guide and support the victim throughout the legal process.
- Insufficient Designated POCSO Courts: The analysis reveals that not all districts have designated POCSO courts. As of 2022, 408 POCSO courts have been established in 28 states under the Government's Fast Track Special Court Scheme.
- Lack of Special Public Prosecutors: There is a shortage of special public prosecutors specifically appointed to handle POCSO cases. Even when appointed, they are often engaged in non-POCSO cases, leading to a lack of dedicated focus on POCSO matters.
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For Prelims: Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO), Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Protocol on the Sale of Children, Children's Code Bill, 2000, Child Abuse Report (2007).
For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the findings of the analysis on convictions, acquittals, victim-accused relationships, and offense patterns in POCSO cases in India. (250 words).
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Previous year Question
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1. In India, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, ____ is a comprehensive law to provide for the protection of children from the offenses of sexual assault, sexual harassment, and pornography, while safeguarding the interests of the child. (SSC CGL 2021)
A.2012
B. 2006
C. 2010
D. 2008
Answer: A
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Source: The Indian Express
UNEMPLOYMENT IN INDIAN STATES
1.Context
The rate of unemployment in the country declined to 5.2% in July from 5.6% in June, shows the Periodic Labour Force Survey released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation on Monday.
2. What is Unemployment?
Unemployment refers to a situation where individuals who are willing and able to work at prevailing wage rates are unable to find jobs.
In other words, it represents a condition where people are actively seeking employment but are currently without work.
Unemployment can occur due to various reasons, including economic downturns, technological changes, mismatch of skills between job seekers and available jobs, and structural issues within the labour market.
Unemployment is typically measured by the unemployment rate, which is the percentage of the labour force that is unemployed and actively seeking employment
3. An analysis of unemployment
- Goa's unemployment rate stands at nearly 10%, surpassing the national average of 3.17% by more than threefold. It's notable that four of the top five states with high unemployment rates—Goa, Kerala, Haryana, and Punjab—are relatively affluent. In contrast, Maharashtra and Gujarat in western India, both prosperous states, report unemployment rates considerably below the national average.
- Across northern states like Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh, unemployment rates exceed the national average. Similarly, most southern states, except Karnataka, also have higher than average unemployment rates.
- Among the 27 states examined, 12 have unemployment rates lower than the national average. Notably, the low rates in significant states such as Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh contribute to this national average decline.
- However, it's puzzling that except for Maharashtra and Gujarat, states with below-average unemployment rates generally exhibit lower per capita incomes compared to the national average
4.The determinants of unemployment
- The data reveals a downward-sloping trend line, suggesting a negative correlation between the two factors: in states where a significant portion of the workforce is involved in self-employment, the unemployment rate tends to be lower.
- Given that much of self-employment in India is informal, states with a higher prevalence of informal work may find it easier to accommodate job seekers.
- However, it remains uncertain whether this relationship is causal. Does a lack of opportunities in self-employment lead to higher unemployment, or do individuals in states with high unemployment rates simply prefer not to pursue self-employment?
- A considerable portion of informal self-employment stems from agriculture and rural economies.
- Hence, a relevant measure is to analyze the proportion of the workforce engaged in urban sectors.
- A clear positive correlation emerges, indicating that unemployment rates rise in states with higher urbanization levels.
- This elucidates the elevated unemployment levels in highly urbanized states like Goa and Kerala, juxtaposed with lower rates in states such as Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh. Urbanized states typically possess smaller agrarian sectors, leading to fewer informal job opportunities compared to rural areas.
- Although informal sectors persist in urban settings, their capacity to absorb job seekers is relatively limited compared to rural agriculture, which often serves as a reserve by absorbing surplus labour
5. Education and employment
- However, there are exceptions to this pattern. Gujarat and Maharashtra, despite being highly urbanized—where the urban workforce comprises 37% in both states, significantly higher than in states like Uttar Pradesh (17%) and Madhya Pradesh (20%)—exhibit lower unemployment rates.
- Following the release of the ILO-IHD report, much discourse has revolved around the correlation between education levels and unemployment.
- A previous article in this publication dated December 26, 2023, titled 'Are graduates facing unemployment?', also delved into the prevalent issue of unemployment among graduates.
- For instance, Kerala boasts a highly educated workforce, with graduates constituting 30% of the labor force, yet it contends with high unemployment.
- Conversely, Gujarat and Maharashtra have a relatively smaller proportion of graduates in their workforce—approximately 14% and 20% respectively—and consequently experience lower unemployment rates despite their affluence and urbanization.
- Numerous factors may account for this phenomenon.
- It's plausible that graduates lack the necessary skills demanded by the burgeoning modern sector, underscoring the need to enhance educational infrastructure and standards.
- However, this doesn't fully elucidate why graduates have historically grappled with unemployment, even during the nascent stages of the modern sector.
- Another potential explanation lies in aspirational factors. Graduates aspire to secure high-paying jobs commensurate with their skills, rather than settling for informal employment.
- If the modern sector fails to expand adequately to absorb new graduates, it could precipitate unemployment.
- Nonetheless, these aren't the sole drivers of unemployment; state policies also wield significant influence. Nevertheless, this analysis underscores the interconnectedness between structural shifts and unemployment.
- As burgeoning economies evolve, there's a diminishing reliance on agriculture, accompanied by heightened urbanization and educational attainment.
- As India progresses, these factors are anticipated to exert upward pressure on the unemployment rate. Thus, it's imperative for policy initiatives to prioritize employment generation to counteract these trends
6. Way Forward
Additionally, states with significant rural populations, such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh, may experience higher unemployment rates due to limited job opportunities outside of agriculture and a lack of sufficient infrastructure for industrial development
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For Prelims: Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Employment Rate (ER), Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), and Labour Force.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) as a critical labor market indicator in the context of economic development and policy formulation. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. In India, which one of the following compiles information on industrial disputes, closures, retrenchments, and lay-offs in factories employing workers? (UPSC 2022)
A. Central Statistics Office
B. Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
C. Labour Bureau
D. National Technical Manpower Information System
Answer: C
2. Which of the following brings out the 'Consumer Price Index Number for Industrial Workers'? (UPSC 2015)
A. The Reserve Bank of India
B. The Department of Economic Affairs
C. The Labour Bureau
D. The Department of Personnel and Training
Answer: C
3. International Labour Organization's Conventions 138 and 182 are related to (UPSC 2018)
A. Child labour
B. Adaptation of agricultural practices to global climate change
C. Regulation of food prices and food
D. Security
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India.
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector.
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
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Source: The Hindu
CLEAN ENERGY
1. Context
Clean energy to semiconductors, defence to medicines, space to deep sea, information technology to nuclear energy — Prime Minister Narendra Modi stressed the importance of self-reliance in critical technologies and scientific research and development in India achieving the objective of becoming a developed nation by 2047.
2. Key takeaways
- Critical minerals, both primary and processed are key inputs in the production process of an economy.
- The framework aims at self-sufficiency across several sectors and achieving the objective of India's clean energy transition.
- The recent surge in demand for critical minerals across the world, owing to their strategic use in renewable and e-mobility has been threatening developing countries with clean energy transition projects on the anvil.
- The demand for these minerals will increase by two to three times the current trends by 2030, according to the International Energy Agency.
- Unequal distribution, potential supply disruptions, price volatility resulting from overseas dependency and the lack of alternatives for these resources intensify the stress on the global mineral market.
- It is furthered by insufficient investment in the entire value chain and a lack of efficient industrial practices for recycling and recovery.
3. India's green energy transition
- Critical minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt and rare earth elements are key to clean energy technologies.
- China currently dominates the sector in terms of the concentration of deposits and processing industries.
- India is on track to becoming the next global leader in the green energy transition.
- The country has been projected to be the world's second-largest economy by 2050.
- India needs to actively engage and incorporate aspects of building a secured and resilient critical minerals supply chain.
- Scaling up the manufacturing of green technologies, including solar panels, wind turbines and batteries for electric vehicles, will result in significant demand and dependency on the supply of a range of critical minerals in future.
- Since these minerals, especially rare earth minerals are key to a low-carbon economy, stronger regulations on this front are vital to addressing the environmental and social impacts of mining and processing these minerals.
4. Disruption of the supply chains
- The Covid-19 pandemic, coupled with Russia's war on Ukraine, disrupted the supply chains of critical minerals.
- China, the most dominant player in the critical mineral supply chains, is still struggling with the Covid-19 lockdowns.
- As a result, the extraction, processing and exports of critical minerals are at risk of slowdown.
- On the other hand, Russia is a major producer of nickel, palladium, titanium, sponge metal and the rare earth element scandium.
- Ukraine, one of the major producers of titanium, also has reserves of lithium, cobalt, graphite and rare earth elements, including tantalum, niobium and beryllium.
- But the war between the two countries has disrupted global critical mineral supply chains.
- As the balance of power shifts across the continents, the critical mineral supply chains may get affected due to growing partnerships between China and Russia.
- Supply chain security for the minerals and materials needed in clean energy technologies has become a strategic issue in the past few years.
- Despite their potential to delay the pace of clean tech deployment, these minerals have now become the latest frontier for geo-economic rivalries.
- To ensure the mineral security of the country and to attain self-sufficiency, the Ministry of Mines has created a joint venture company, Khanji Bidesh India Ltd (KABIL).
- But the present policy regime reserves these minerals only for public sector undertakings.
- The country needs to encourage and incentivise the private players in the sector to venture globally in parallel with KABIL.
5. India's engagement with other countries
- India is currently a member of The Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development, which supports the advancement of good mining governance.
- Recently, India and Australia decided to strengthen their partnership in clean energy transition and create resilient supply chains for critical minerals.
- Australia committed $ 5.8 million to the three-year India-Australia Critical Minerals Investment Partnership.
- India must proactively engage with global players to secure its place in international partnerships on critical minerals.
- Last year, the United States formed the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP), a global alliance to reduce dependence on China.
- MSP is an ambitious new alliance comprising Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the US and the European Commission.
- The alliance intends to ensure that critical minerals are produced, processed and recycled in a manner that supports the ability of countries to realise the full economic and sustainable development benefit of their geological endowments.
6. The Way Forward
- India needs to actively engage with global players to secure its seat in MSP
- The processing technologies required for utilising critical and strategic minerals are not widely available in India.
- The country needs to use the vast network of scientific and technical Institutions to identify the necessary technologies and work on developing the same domestically.
- It can be achieved by partnering with global alliances and strengthening its case for becoming an active member of the MSP.
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For Prelims: MSP, Critical Minerals, India-Australia, Clean Energy, International Energy Agency, Covid-19 pandemic, Russia's war on Ukraine, Ministry of Mines,
For Mains:
1. What are Critical Minerals? Discuss the need for India to deepen its global partnerships on critical minerals. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following minerals: (UPSC 2020)
1. Bentonite
2. Chromite
3. Kyanite
4. Sillimanite
In India, which of the above is/are officially designated as major minerals?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 4 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 2, 3 and 4 only
Answer: D
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. With reference to India, consider the following statements: UPSC 2022
1. Monazite is a source of rare earth.
2. Monazite contains thorium.
3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India.
4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 1, 2 and 4 only C. 3 and 4 only D.1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: B
4. With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Sand is a 'minor mineral' according to the prevailing law in the country.
2. State Governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
5. Consider the following minerals: (UPSC 2013)
1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Sodium
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by the human body for the contraction of muscles?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
6. Among the following pairs of minerals and districts, which one is correctly matched?
(BPSC Combined Competitive Exam)
A. Limestone - Kaimur
B. Mica - Bhagalpur
C. Quartzite - Madhubani
D. Lead-zinc - Gaya
E. None of the above/More than one of the above
Answer: A
7. Match List - I with List- II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: ( UPPSC 2016)
List – I (Centre) List – II (Minerals)
(A) Makum (i) Iron Ore
(B) Dallirajhara (ii) Coal
(C) Koraput (iii) Manganese
(D) Chitradurga (iv) Bauxite
1. (A) - (3), (B) - (2), (C) - (1), (D) - (4)
2. (A) - (2), (B) - (1), (C) - (4), (D) - (3)
3. (A) - (4), (B) - (3), (C) - (2), (D) - (1)
4. (A) - (1), (B) - (2), (C) - (3), (D) - (4)
Answer: 2
8. Match List I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists: (UPSC CAPF 2017)
List II (Mineral) List II (Mine)
A. Zinc 1. Amjhore
B. Gold 2. Sukinda
C. Chromite 3. Zawar
D. Pyrita 4. Hutti
1. A - 1, B - 2, C - 4, D - 3
2. A - 3, B - 2, C - 4, D - 1
3. A - 3, B - 4, C - 2, D - 1
4. A - 1, B - 4, C - 2, D - 3
Answer: 3
9. Which one of the following is the appropriate reason for considering the Gondwana rocks as most important of rock systems of India? (UPSC 2010)
A. More than 90% of limestone reserves of India are found in them
B. More than 90% of India's coal reserves are found in them
C. More than 90% of fertile black cotton soils are spread over them
D. None of the reasons given above is appropriate in this context
Answer: B
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2013)
1. Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana beds.
2. Mica occurs in abundance in Kodarma.
3. Dharwars are famous for petroleum.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. None
Answer: B
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Source: The Down to Earth
CRITICAL MINERALS
1. Context
Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in his Independence Day address from the Red Fort, called for India to become self-reliant in energy and critical minerals, pointing to the opportunity cost of a high petroleum import bill. Modi also said the government has “opened the doors” of nuclear energy to the private sector, and aims to grow nuclear generation capacity tenfold by 2047.
2. What are Critical Minerals?
Critical minerals are raw materials that are essential for economic and national security, but whose supply may be at risk due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors
Critical minerals are typically defined by governments or organizations based on their importance to the economy and the potential risks to their supply
- Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
- Lithium
- Cobalt
- Graphite
- Gallium
- Indium
- Tungsten
- Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
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3. Why are critical minerals important?
- Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
- According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
- The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
- By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
- Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
4. What is being done to spur production?
- Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
- Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
- Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.
5. Way Forward
The list of what's considered "critical" can vary by country and change over time based on technological developments and geopolitical situations. The management of critical minerals is an ongoing challenge that requires balancing economic needs, environmental concerns, and geopolitical realities
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For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions, cleaner energy, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,
For Mains:
1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010)
Mineral 90%Natural sources in
1. Copper Jharkhand
2. Nickel Orissa
3. Tungsten Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022)
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 1, 2 and 4
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018)
Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy.
A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I)
C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false
D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true
Answer: C
6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017)
A. Lead Acid B. Manganese C. Lithium ion D. Nickel metal hydride
Answer: C
7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)
A. gold, nickel and palladium
B. gold, cobalt and palladium
C. gold, titanium and platinum
D. gold, magnesium and palladium
Answer: A
8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)
A. isotopes B. isomers C. isotones D. allotropes
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013)
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 4 and 5 only C. 1, 3 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: B
14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021)
A. 1851 B. 1951 C. 1871 D. 1931
Answer: A
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Source: The Hindu
FLASH FLOODS
1. Context
At least 65 people have been killed after torrential rain triggered a flash flood at a remote village in Jammu & Kashmir’s Kishtwar district on Thursday. The incident took place at Chasoti, the last motorable village on the way to the Machail Mata temple. More than 50 people are missing.
2. What is a Flood
- Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
- Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
- Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break.
- Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.
- Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer.
- Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.
3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.
These factors include -
- Meteorological factors
- Physical factors
- Human factors
3.1 Meteorological Factors
The natural causes of floods are discussed below -
- Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
- Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
- Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
- Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
- Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
- Cyclone & Heavy rainfall
3.2. Physical Factors.
- Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
- Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.
3.3. Human Factor
- Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
- Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood.
- Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
- Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
- Unplanned Development
- Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
4.Types of Flood
- Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
- Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
- River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
- Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
- Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
5. Damages Caused by Floods in India
The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences.
- Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
- Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
- Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
- Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
- Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
6. Flood Management
Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:
- Attempts to modify the flood
- Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
- Attempts to modify the loss burden
- Bearing the loss.
- The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.
6.1 Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
- Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
- Dams and reservoirs
- Natural detention basins
- Channel improvement
- Drainage improvement
- Diversion of flood waters.
6.2 Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
- Flood forecasting and warning
- Floodplain zoning
- Flood fighting
- Floodproofing
- Flood insurance.
7.What are Flash Floods
- Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed.
- Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time.
- They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
8. Status of Floods in India
8.1 NDRF Report
- 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
- On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.
8.2 Statistics
- Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
- 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.
9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?
- Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
- Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land.
- Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream.
- Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly.
- Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding.
- Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
- Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
- Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
- Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.
10. The impact of floods in India
11. Impact of flood on wildlife
12. Government actions regarding flood management
12.1.The National Flood Management Commission
- Launched in 1954
- Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
12.2.Rashtriya Barh Aayog, 1976
- To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
- It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
12.3.Regional task forces, 1996
- It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
- It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.
12.4.National Water Policy, 2002
- It recommended
- Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
- Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
- More emphasis on non-structural measures.
- Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.
12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were
- Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
- In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
- Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
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For Prelims: Cloudbursts, flash floods, landslides, Cumulonimbus Clouds, Water Vapour, Floodplain Zoning, Green Infrastructure.
For Mains: 1. What is a cloudburst, and how does it differ from regular rainfall? Explain the causes and meteorological factors that contribute to the occurrence of a cloudburst.
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Previous year Questions1. Which of the following statements with regard to Cloudburst is/are correct? (UPSC CDS 2017)
1. It is defined as sudden localized very heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning.
2. It mostly occurs in the hilly areas.
3. It results in a very high intensity of rainfall, i.e., 250 mm-300 mm in a couple of hours.
4. It occurs only during the daytime.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 3 and 4
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 2 only
Answer: A
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Source: The Indian Express
REMOVAL OF CHIEF ELECTION COMMISSIONER
1. Context
A day after the Election Commission of India’s (ECI’s) press conference dismissing allegations of electoral fraud as “baseless and invalid”, the INDIA bloc on Monday said it was considering moving a motion of removal of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) during the ongoing session of Parliament.
2. Process of appointment
- The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India based on the recommendations of a three-member selection panel, which includes the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition (LoP), and a Union Cabinet Minister.
- As per the 2023 Act, the appointees must be former secretary-level officers in the Government and should be individuals of proven integrity, with adequate knowledge and experience in managing and conducting elections.
- Their tenure is fixed at six years or until they attain the age of 65, whichever is earlier. The CEC is entitled to the same privileges, service conditions, and salary as a judge of the Supreme Court
3. Process of removal
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- Article 324(5) of the Constitution provides that the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) can only be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Supreme Court judge.
- This safeguard is reiterated in Section 11(2) of the 2023 Act. The provision also specifies that an Election Commissioner or Regional Commissioner may be removed only if the CEC recommends it.
- This high threshold was intentionally designed to insulate the Election Commission of India (ECI) from political influence.
- Under Article 124(4) of the Constitution, which outlines the removal procedure for Supreme Court judges, removal is permitted solely on grounds of “proved misbehaviour or incapacity.”
- Misbehaviour generally refers to corrupt acts, abuse of power, or conduct inconsistent with the role of the CEC, while incapacity denotes the inability to carry out official duties.
- The process begins with a notice of motion in either House of Parliament, explicitly alleging misbehaviour or incapacity.
- Once admitted, a committee of enquiry investigates the charges. For the motion to succeed, it must be passed by a two-thirds majority of members present and voting in both Houses of Parliament.
- If the motion passes, the President formally removes the CEC. In this matter, the President has no discretionary power, acting strictly in accordance with Parliament’s decision
4.Constitution and Election Commission of India
The Constitution includes a series of articles (Articles 324–329) that grant powers to the Election Commission and outline its possible roles and responsibilities.
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Article 324: Grants the authority for overseeing, directing, and controlling the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
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Article 325: Prohibits exclusion from electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, sex, or any of these factors.
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Article 326: Establishes adult suffrage as the foundation for elections to the House of the People and State Legislative Assemblies.
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Article 327: Allows Parliament to pass laws, in accordance with the Constitution, regarding all matters related to elections to Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
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Article 328: Empowers state legislatures to enact laws concerning all matters related to elections to the state's legislative bodies.
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Article 329: Prevents courts from interfering in electoral matters
5. ECI Responsibilities and Functions
The responsibilities and functions of the Election Commission of India (ECI) can be categorized into advisory, quasi-judicial, and administrative roles.
- Advisory: The Constitution grants the ECI the authority to advise on the post-election disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State Legislatures. The ECI is also consulted in cases where individuals are found guilty of corrupt practices during elections, as brought before the Supreme Court and High Courts, to decide if they should be disqualified from contesting future elections and for how long. In such matters, the President or, where applicable, the Governor, is required to follow the ECI's advice.
- Quasi-Judicial: The ECI has the power to disqualify a candidate who fails to submit their election expense accounts within the legally required timeframe and format. It also has the authority to remove or reduce other legal disqualifications. Additionally, the ECI resolves disputes related to the recognition of political parties and the allocation of election symbols. The commission sets a model code of conduct and ensures compliance by all candidates and political parties during elections.
- Administrative: The ECI's administrative duties include delimiting electoral constituencies and managing the registration of eligible voters, as well as regularly updating electoral rolls. The commission is responsible for announcing election schedules and dates, reviewing nomination documents, recognizing political parties, and assigning them election symbols. The ECI can also nullify voting in cases of violence, booth capturing, tampering, or other irregularities. It oversees the financial expenditure of political parties on candidates' campaigns impartially.
The ECI also designates specific roles to register political parties for elections and grants them the status of national or state parties based on their performance in the polls. These roles include the person in charge of elections, the District Election Officer, and the Election Registration and Returning Officer
6.Composition of Election Commission of India
- Since its inception in 1950, the Chief Electoral Commissioner (CEC) was the sole member of the Election Commission of India (ECI). However, after the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1989, a large influx of new voters was added. To manage this increased workload, two additional commissioners were appointed, expanding the ECI to include three commissioners.
- In January 1990, some changes were made to the structure of the ECI, but it was soon reverted to its original form. Following discussions and debates in the political sphere, the President ultimately reconstituted the commission in 1993, adding two more commissioners, establishing the current structure of the ECI.
- The Chief Election Commissioner and the other election commissioners are appointed by the President, who also determines their terms of office and service conditions. All commissioners, including the CEC, receive the same salary, benefits, and powers as judges of the Supreme Court.
- If there is a disagreement among the three members, decisions are made by a majority vote. Commissioners serve a term of up to six years or until they reach the age of 65, whichever comes first. They hold a status equivalent to that of Supreme Court justices in India.
- The Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed from office through the same process used to remove a Supreme Court judge. This involves the President dismissing the CEC based on a resolution supported by a special majority in both Houses of Parliament, on grounds of proven misconduct or incapacity.
- In conclusion, as outlined by the Constitution, the ECI is responsible for supervising, directing, and conducting elections for the offices of President, Vice President, state legislatures, and Parliament.
- For elections to state-level urban bodies like municipalities and panchayats, a separate State Election Commission exists. The ECI plays a crucial role in upholding the democratic process by ensuring free and fair elections for key political positions in the country
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India, Chief Election Commissioner, Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991, State Election Commission, Article 324, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the powers and functions of the Election Commission of India. How does the Election Commission ensure the conduct of free and fair elections in the Country? (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
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Source: Indianexpress
