ROAD SAFETY IN INDIA
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In the first half of this year alone, national highways have recorded 29,018 fatalities — accounting for over half of last year’s total deaths. Despite making up just 2% of India’s total road network, national highways are responsible for more than 30% of all road accident deaths.
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Between January and June 2025, 67,933 accidents occurred on national highways. In comparison, 2024 saw 53,090 fatalities from 1,25,873 such accidents, while 2023 reported 53,630 deaths from 1,23,955 accidents.
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These figures are compiled from data submitted by states and Union Territories to the Electronic Detailed Accident Report (eDAR) portal — a centralised platform for collecting, managing, and analysing road accident information.
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In 2023, India recorded over 1.72 lakh road accident fatalities. The Union government has set a target to cut this number by half by the year 2030
The Indian government has taken several initiatives related to road safety in an effort to reduce road accidents and improve the safety of road users. Some of the key initiatives and programs include:
- National Road Safety Policy: The Indian government introduced a National Road Safety Policy with the aim of reducing road accidents and their consequences. The policy outlines various strategies to improve road safety.
- Road Safety Awareness Campaigns: The government, in collaboration with various organizations, conducts road safety awareness campaigns to educate the public about safe driving practices, the importance of wearing helmets and seat belts, and the dangers of driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
- National Road Safety Council (NRSC): The NRSC is responsible for coordinating road safety activities in India. It focuses on promoting road safety education, awareness, and enforcement.
- Road Safety Education: The government has incorporated road safety education into the school curriculum to instill safe road behaviors from a young age.
- Traffic Police Initiatives: Various state and city traffic police departments have initiated campaigns to enforce traffic rules and regulations, such as penalizing those not wearing helmets or seat belts and cracking down on drunk driving.
- Strict Implementation of Motor Vehicles Act: In 2019, India amended the Motor Vehicles Act to increase fines for traffic violations significantly. The stricter enforcement of the act aims to deter people from breaking traffic rules.
- Safety Measures for Two-Wheelers: The government has pushed for the adoption of safety measures for two-wheeler riders, such as mandatory helmet use and encouraging the use of helmets meeting safety standards.
At the international level, several initiatives and organizations are dedicated to promoting road safety and reducing traffic-related injuries and fatalities. Some of the key initiatives and organizations related to road safety at the international level include:
- United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety: The United Nations launched the Decade of Action for Road Safety (2011-2020) to raise awareness and take measures to reduce road traffic injuries and fatalities. The initiative involved various countries working together to improve road safety.
- Global Road Safety Partnership (GRSP): GRSP is a nonprofit organization that partners with governments, businesses, and civil society to promote road safety initiatives globally. It supports a wide range of road safety programs and advocacy efforts.
- World Health Organization (WHO): The WHO is actively involved in promoting road safety through its "Save Lives" campaign. It provides data, research, and technical guidance to countries to develop and implement effective road safety policies and programs.
- UN Road Safety Collaboration (UNRSC): UNRSC is a global platform that brings together governments, NGOs, and the private sector to collaborate on road safety initiatives and share best practices.
- Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety: This plan, endorsed by the United Nations, provides a framework for countries to develop and implement road safety strategies and measures to reduce traffic-related fatalities and injuries.
- Safer Vehicles: International organizations like the Global New Car Assessment Programme (Global NCAP) work to improve vehicle safety standards globally. They conduct crash tests and promote the adoption of safer vehicle designs.
- Road Safety Conventions: International agreements and conventions, such as the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and the 1958 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic, set common standards and rules for road safety that participating countries agree to adhere to.
- Global Alliance of NGOs for Road Safety: This alliance comprises various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working collaboratively to advocate for road safety and influence policy at the global level.
- International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP): iRAP conducts road safety assessments to identify and prioritize infrastructure improvements that can enhance road safety worldwide.
The "Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety" is a significant international commitment and declaration made at the Second Global High-Level Conference on Road Safety, held in Brasilia, Brazil, from November 18 to 19, 2015. The conference was organized by the Government of Brazil, the World Health Organization (WHO), and various international partners. The Brasilia Declaration builds on the first Global High-Level Conference on Road Safety, held in Moscow in 2009.
The Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety is a commitment by participating countries to address the global road safety crisis and work together to reduce the high number of road traffic-related deaths and injuries
6. Way forward
These international initiatives and organizations work collaboratively to raise awareness, share knowledge, and develop strategies and policies that can improve road safety on a global scale. Road safety is recognized as a significant public health issue worldwide, and these efforts aim to save lives and reduce the social and economic impact of road traffic injuries
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc For Mains: General Studies III: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc |
Source: indianexpress
CRITICAL MINERALS
- Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
- Lithium
- Cobalt
- Graphite
- Gallium
- Indium
- Tungsten
- Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
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- Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
- According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
- The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
- By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
- Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
- Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
- Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
- Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.
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For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions, cleaner energy, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,
For Mains:
1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010)
Mineral 90%Natural sources in
1. Copper Jharkhand
2. Nickel Orissa
3. Tungsten Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022)
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 1, 2 and 4
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018)
Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy.
A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I)
C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false
D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true
Answer: C
6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017)
A. Lead Acid B. Manganese C. Lithium ion D. Nickel metal hydride
Answer: C
7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)
A. gold, nickel and palladium
B. gold, cobalt and palladium
C. gold, titanium and platinum
D. gold, magnesium and palladium
Answer: A
8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)
A. isotopes B. isomers C. isotones D. allotropes
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013)
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 4 and 5 only C. 1, 3 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: B
14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021)
A. 1851 B. 1951 C. 1871 D. 1931
Answer: A
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GREEN REVOLUTION
Key features and components of the Green Revolution include:
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Introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): One of the central elements of the Green Revolution was the development and widespread adoption of high-yielding crop varieties, particularly for wheat and rice. These new varieties produced significantly higher yields per acre compared to traditional varieties.
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Use of Modern Farming Techniques: Alongside HYVs, the Green Revolution promoted the use of modern agricultural practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation. These technologies helped boost crop yields.
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Expansion of Irrigation: Increasing access to irrigation was a critical component of the Green Revolution. Irrigation allowed for better water management and more consistent crop production.
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Access to Credit and Infrastructure: The Green Revolution often included measures to provide farmers with access to credit, improved transportation, and marketing infrastructure to support their increased agricultural production.
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Research and Education: Government and international organizations invested in agricultural research and extension services to disseminate knowledge about the new agricultural practices to farmers.
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Public and Private Sector Collaboration: Collaboration between public sector institutions, such as research institutions and agricultural extension agencies, and the private sector, including seed companies, played a crucial role in the Green Revolution's success.
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Increased Crop Production: As a result of these efforts, many countries experienced substantial increases in crop production, particularly in staple crops like rice, wheat, and maize. This helped alleviate hunger and food shortages in many regions
The Green Revolution had a number of positive impacts on India, including:
- The Green Revolution led to a significant increase in agricultural production in India. Wheat production increased by 170% between 1965 and 1980, while rice production increased by 270%. This increase in production helped to alleviate poverty and hunger in India.
- The Green Revolution helped India to become self-sufficient in food production. This meant that India was no longer dependent on imported food to feed its population.
- The Green Revolution contributed to India's economic growth. The increase in agricultural production led to an increase in incomes for farmers and rural communities. This increased spending power boosted the demand for goods and services, which helped to drive economic growth.
- The Green Revolution led to an increase in the use of fertilizers and pesticides, which can have a negative impact on the environment.
- The use of water also increased significantly during the Green Revolution, leading to water shortages in some areas
- The Green Revolution benefited large farmers more than small farmers. Large farmers were able to invest in the new technologies, such as high-yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers, which led to significant increases in their production.
- Small farmers, on the other hand, often did not have the resources to invest in these new technologies, and their production did not increase as much
- The Green Revolution led to an increase in rural indebtedness. Many farmers borrowed money to invest in the new technologies, but they were unable to repay their loans when agricultural prices fell. This led to a debt crisis in rural India
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For Prelims: Bt Cotton, High Yielding Varieties (HYV), Green Revolution
For Mains: 1.The Green Revolution is often credited with increasing agricultural productivity in India. However, it has also faced criticism for its environmental and social repercussions. Analyze the positive and negative aspects of the Green Revolution and its long-term sustainability
2.Critically evaluate the impact of the Green Revolution on income distribution among farmers in India. Has it contributed to income inequality within the agricultural sector? Provide examples and data to support your analysis
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following most appropriately describes the nature of Green Revolution of the late sixties of 20th century? (BPSC CCE 2015)
A.Intensive cultivation of green vegetable
B.Intensive agriculture district programme
C.High-yielding varieties programme
D.Seed-Fertilizer-Water technology
E.None of the above/More than one of the above
Answer (E)
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GREAT HORNBILL
- The Malamuzhakki Vezhambal, or the Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), is one of the most iconic and majestic birds found in the forests of the Western Ghats, including the lush landscapes of Kerala.
- Its name in Malayalam, Malamuzhakki Vezhambal, translates to "the hornbill that echoes through the mountains," a poetic reference to the loud, resonant call it makes, which often carries far through the dense forest canopy.
- This bird is easily recognizable by its large size, striking black and white plumage, and, most notably, its massive yellow and black casque—a hollow structure that sits atop its long, curved bill. The casque’s function is still debated among ornithologists, but it is believed to be used for amplification of calls and possibly as a display during mating rituals or territorial displays.
- The Great Hornbill holds great ecological significance as well as cultural reverence. It plays a crucial role in seed dispersal, particularly of large fruiting trees like figs, thus helping maintain the health and regeneration of tropical forests. The bird is mainly frugivorous, feeding on a variety of fruits, although it occasionally supplements its diet with small mammals, reptiles, or insects.
- One of the most fascinating aspects of the Great Hornbill is its unique breeding behavior. During nesting, the female seals herself inside a tree cavity using a mixture of mud, fruit pulp, and droppings, leaving only a narrow slit through which the male passes food.
- She remains inside for weeks—sometimes up to four months—while she incubates the eggs and raises the chicks. This nesting period highlights the deep partnership and dependency between the male and female during reproduction.
- In traditional folklore and local culture, the Vezhambal is often seen as a symbol of grandeur, longevity, and mystery. Sadly, the species is facing increasing threats from habitat loss due to deforestation and fragmentation, along with hunting in some regions for its casque and feathers. It is currently listed as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List
Reasons for Vulnerable Status:
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Habitat Loss: Large-scale deforestation and fragmentation of tropical forests, especially in the Western Ghats and Northeast India, have significantly reduced its natural habitat.
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Hunting and Poaching: In some regions, the bird is hunted for its casque (helmet-like structure on its bill) and feathers, which are used in traditional ornaments and rituals.
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Low Reproductive Rate: Their unique nesting behavior—one breeding pair requiring a large tree cavity and a long incubation period—makes population recovery slow
- The Indian Hornbill, especially the Great Indian Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), holds deep cultural and spiritual significance across many parts of India, particularly in tribal and forest-dwelling communities. Beyond its ecological importance, this majestic bird has long been woven into the folklore, rituals, and traditional beliefs of several Indigenous groups.
- In the Northeastern states, such as Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Manipur, the hornbill is revered as a symbol of valour, strength, and prosperity. Among the Naga tribes, the bird's feathers and casques are traditionally worn by warriors and chiefs during festivals and ceremonies to denote bravery and high status.
- The Hornbill Festival, celebrated annually in Nagaland, is a vibrant cultural event named after the bird. The festival brings together various tribes to showcase their heritage through music, dance, crafts, and storytelling, with the hornbill serving as a symbolic unifier of diverse Naga cultures.
- In Kerala, the Great Hornbill is known as "Malamuzhakki Vezhambal", which poetically means “the hornbill that echoes through the mountains.” In local folklore, the bird is often associated with the pristine, ancient forests of the Western Ghats.
- It is admired not only for its grandeur and striking appearance but also for its mysterious presence deep within forest canopies. The hornbill’s booming call, which resonates through the hills, adds to its mythical aura.
- The bird's devoted parenting behaviour—especially the female sealing herself inside a tree cavity during nesting and the male tirelessly feeding her and the chicks—has often been interpreted as a powerful symbol of loyalty, sacrifice, and protection. In some tribal myths, this act is seen as a lesson in family unity and trust.
- Despite this admiration, the hornbill’s parts were once used in traditional ornaments, ceremonial headgear, or ritual objects, which unfortunately led to hunting in the past.
- However, many communities have now moved towards symbolic representations, using wood, cloth, or painted replicas instead of real hornbill parts—reflecting a growing awareness about conservation and respect for wildlife.
- In recent years, the hornbill has also become a flagship species in conservation campaigns. Its cultural importance is being leveraged to promote forest protection and environmental education.
- By tapping into traditional reverence for the hornbill, conservationists are working hand in hand with local communities to ensure that this magnificent bird continues to thrive in both the forests and the folklore of India.
- In essence, the Indian Hornbill is not just a bird—it is a cultural icon, a storyteller of the forest, and a bridge between tradition and conservation
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S. No. |
Common Name |
Scientific Name |
Key Identifying Features (for quick visual ID) |
Distribution in India |
Conservation Status (IUCN) |
Image |
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1. |
Great Hornbill |
Buceros bicornis |
Very large, prominent yellow and black casque, white tail. |
Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Himalayan foothills, NE India |
Vulnerable |
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2. |
Malabar Pied Hornbill |
Anthracoceros coronatus |
Medium-sized, black and white plumage, large yellow casque with black markings. |
Western Ghats, parts of Central India (MP, Odisha) |
Near Threatened |
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3. |
Oriental Pied Hornbill |
Anthracoceros albirostris |
Medium-sized, black and white, smaller casque than Malabar Pied, mostly white underparts. |
Northeast India, Andaman & Nicobar Islands |
Least Concern |
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4. |
Indian Grey Hornbill |
Ocyceros birostris |
Medium-sized, entirely grey plumage, small, dark casque. |
Widespread across Indian subcontinent (except NE & high alt.) |
Least Concern |
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5. |
Malabar Grey Hornbill |
Ocyceros griseus |
Medium-sized, grey plumage, yellowish bill, no prominent casque, rufous vent. |
Endemic to Western Ghats |
Least Concern |
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6. |
Narcondam Hornbill |
Rhyticeros narcondami |
Smallest Indian hornbill, dark plumage, casque with unique shape, found only on Narcondam Island. |
Endemic to Narcondam Island (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) |
Vulnerable |
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7. |
Rufous-necked Hornbill |
Aceros nipalensis |
Large, male with rufous neck & head; female black; prominent, ridged casque. |
Northeast India (Himalayan foothills) |
Vulnerable |
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8. |
Wreathed Hornbill |
Rhyticeros undulatus |
Large, male with yellow gular pouch, female blue; distinctive 'wreathed' casque. |
Northeast India |
Vulnerable |
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9. |
Austen's Brown Hornbill |
Anorrhinus austeni |
Medium-sized, overall brown plumage, smaller casque, often seen in groups. |
Northeast India |
Near Threatened |
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For Prelims: Hornbill Festival, Great Hornbill, Kuki-Zoo
For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? (2016) (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats Answer (d)
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CAT BONDS
- Catastrophe bonds, or cat bonds, are specialized financial instruments that blend elements of insurance and debt. They convert insurance coverage into securities that can be traded in the financial markets.
- By doing so, these bonds shift the burden of disaster-related risks from vulnerable countries not only to traditional global re-insurers but also to the broader financial market, thereby significantly expanding the pool of funds available for post-disaster recovery and rebuilding efforts.
- These instruments are designed to transfer specified risks to investors, allowing for faster disbursement of funds and minimizing counterparty exposure.
- Typically, cat bonds are issued by sovereign governments that act as sponsors. They pay a premium for the coverage, and the insured amount becomes the bond’s principal.
- To mitigate counterparty risk, a third-party intermediary—such as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, or a reinsurance firm—is involved in issuing the bond.
- In the event of a disaster, investors may lose part or all of their principal, which is why these bonds usually offer higher returns than standard debt securities.
- The interest rates on cat bonds vary depending on the type of risk; for instance, earthquake-related bonds often carry lower premiums (around 1–2%) compared to those linked to hurricanes or cyclones
- Catastrophe bonds, or cat bonds, can be profitable, but they carry a unique set of risks that distinguish them from traditional financial instruments. These bonds are designed to provide high returns to investors in exchange for taking on the risk of a specific natural disaster occurring—such as a hurricane, earthquake, or flood.
- Because of the nature of this risk, the bonds offer higher coupon (interest) rates than standard corporate or government bonds. This makes them especially attractive in low-interest environments where investors are looking for higher yields.
- One of the reasons cat bonds are considered potentially profitable is their low correlation with the broader financial markets. Their performance is not directly influenced by market downturns, inflation, or changes in interest rates.
- Instead, their fate depends almost entirely on whether a predefined catastrophic event occurs within a certain timeframe and geographic area.
- This characteristic makes cat bonds valuable as a diversification tool in large investment portfolios, especially for institutional investors like pension funds or hedge funds.
- However, the potential for profit comes with significant risk. If the specified disaster does not occur, the investor receives attractive returns.
- But if the event does happen—and if it meets the criteria set in the bond agreement—the investor can lose part or even all of their principal. In this sense, cat bonds function somewhat like a bet: either the investor earns a high reward, or they face a considerable loss.
- Another important aspect is the reliance on catastrophe modeling. These models estimate the likelihood and impact of certain events, but if they are flawed or overly optimistic, investors may be exposed to more risk than they anticipated.
- Moreover, cat bonds are not as easily traded as mainstream securities, meaning they can sometimes be harder to sell quickly, which reduces their liquidity
- In the era of climate change, the increasing intensity and frequency of natural disasters have made it difficult for insurers and reinsurers to manage risk profitably. This trend is already visible in the United States, where more powerful hurricanes and frequent wildfires are driving up insurance premiums.
- As a result, demand for insurance declines, and the burden of risk ultimately shifts back to disaster-affected individuals. This is where government intervention becomes crucial, especially through the use of financial instruments like catastrophe bonds (cat bonds).
- South Asia, and India in particular, is facing greater vulnerability to extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, wildfires, and major earthquakes. To shield its public finances from the heavy cost of disaster recovery, India must consider structured approaches to risk transfer.
- Given India’s solid sovereign credit profile and the scale of its disaster exposure, issuing cat bonds through a credible intermediary like the World Bank—using its well-established bond curves—could prove to be a cost-efficient solution.
- Insurance companies often include requirements for disaster risk mitigation in their agreements, and failure to meet such standards can drive up the bond’s interest rates. In this regard, India has already made commendable progress.
- Since the financial year 2021–22, it has been allocating about $1.8 billion annually for disaster mitigation and capacity-building efforts, indicating a proactive approach to risk management.
- Considering India’s economic size and creditworthiness, it is well-positioned to take the lead in launching a regional cat bond for South Asia. Many of the region’s disaster risks remain uninsured, and a collaborative approach could help distribute these risks more evenly.
- The region also presents a diverse hazard landscape, with different countries facing distinct threats based on their geography and vulnerability. For instance, a regional cat bond could be tailored to cover high-impact events like earthquakes in Nepal, Bhutan, and India, or catastrophic cyclones and tsunamis affecting India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Myanmar.
- A shared financial instrument like this would help lower premium costs, enhance disaster preparedness, and strengthen the region’s collective financial resilience
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For Prelims: Cat bonds, Asian Development Bank, World Bank
For Mains: GS III - Disaster Management
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PERFORMANCE GRADING INDEX (PGI)
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The Performance Grading Index (PGI) was first launched in 2017, and later restructured into PGI 2.0 in 2021 by the Ministry of Education. This tool evaluates the quality of school education across 73 parameters, which fall into two main categories: outcomes and governance & management. These are further organized into six specific domains:
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Learning outcomes and educational quality
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Accessibility of education
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Infrastructure and available facilities
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Equity in education
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Governance and administrative processes
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Teacher training and professional development
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The most recent edition of the PGI covers the academic years 2022–23 and 2023–24, and bases its findings on data sourced from the National Achievement Survey (2021), UDISE+, and the PM-POSHAN (formerly Mid-Day Meal) scheme.
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States and Union Territories (UTs) are evaluated on a 1,000-point scale. Under PGI 2.0, scores are categorized into specific grade levels, with the topmost level termed ‘Daksh’, representing scores above 90% of the maximum range.
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However, none of the States or UTs managed to secure a score above 761. Chandigarh achieved the highest with 703 points, placing it in the ‘Prachesta-1’ grade band (701–760). This was an improvement from 687.8 in the previous year.
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Following Chandigarh, Punjab secured 631.1 points and Delhi got 623.7. Other high-performing regions like Kerala, Gujarat, Odisha, Haryana, Goa, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan fell within the 581–640 score range.
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At the bottom end, Meghalaya scored the lowest at 417.9, with Arunachal Pradesh (461.4), Mizoram (464.2), Nagaland (468.6), and Bihar (471.9) performing only slightly better.
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States including Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand were placed in the Akanshi-1 category, with scores between 521 and 580.
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Highlighting regional disparities, the report noted a significant scoring gap, with the highest state scoring 719 and the lowest at 417 for the year 2023–24.
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The objective of the PGI is to guide States and UTs in identifying areas requiring focused interventions. Encouragingly, 25 out of 36 States/UTs showed an improvement in their performance compared to the previous year
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Mizoram, Goa, and Tripura have been recognized as achieving "full literacy" under the Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society (ULLAS) initiative, also known as the Nav Bharat Saksharta Karyakram.
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The ULLAS – Nav Bharat Saaksharta Karyakram, also referred to as the New India Literacy Programme (NILP), is a centrally sponsored scheme that runs from 2022 to 2027. Its goal is to provide basic literacy and numeracy to five crore adults aged 15 and above who lack these foundational skills—primarily focusing on the ability to read, write, and perform simple arithmetic typically taught in early school years.
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Rooted in the principle of Kartavya Bodh (sense of duty), the programme operates through volunteer participation and is structured around five key components:
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Foundational literacy and numeracy
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Essential life skills
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Basic education
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Vocational training
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Continuing education
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This initiative is managed by the Union Ministry of School Education and Literacy and also includes a component aimed at transforming 14,500 schools into model institutions to reflect and promote the ideals of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
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The programme targets existing government-run schools—including elementary, secondary, and senior secondary levels—under the jurisdiction of central, state, and local authorities throughout the country
- The Performance Grading Index for Districts (PGI-D) is an initiative by the Ministry of Education to assess the performance of school education at the district level across India. It is a data-driven framework that evaluates districts based on key indicators to help identify strengths and gaps in their education systems
- The primary aim of PGI-D is to promote evidence-based policy-making and encourage local-level improvements by highlighting disparities in performance and recognizing high-achieving districts. It enables states and union territories to pinpoint areas requiring targeted interventions.
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PGI-D evaluates districts using a set of 83 performance indicators, grouped into six domains:
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Learning Outcomes & Quality
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Access to Education
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Infrastructure & Facilities
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Equity
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Governance Processes
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Teacher Education & Training
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These indicators are aligned with the goals of the Samagra Shiksha scheme and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
PGI 2.0 relies on data from:
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National Achievement Survey (NAS) 2021
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Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+)
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PM-POSHAN (mid-day meal programme)
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For Prelims: Performance Grading Index (PGI), National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, New India Literacy Programme (NILP)
For Mains: GS II - Reports
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following provisions of the Constitution does India have a bearing on Education? (UPSC CSE 2012) 1. Directive Principles of State Policy 2. Rural and Urban Local Bodies 3. Fifth Schedule 4. Sixth Schedule 5. Seventh Schedule Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 2 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (d) |
OPEN ECOSYSTEMS
- A dessert is the final course of a meal, typically served after the main dishes, and is usually sweet in flavor. It is meant to provide a pleasant and satisfying end to the dining experience.
- Desserts come in a wide variety of forms, including cakes, pastries, cookies, puddings, ice creams, custards, fruits, and confections such as chocolates or candies. In many cultures, desserts hold a special place not just in everyday meals but also in celebrations and festivals, where they are often prepared with extra care and tradition.
- The nature of desserts can vary greatly depending on geography, culture, and personal preference. For example, in Western cuisines, rich and indulgent desserts like cheesecakes or chocolate mousse are common, while in many Asian cuisines, desserts often involve ingredients like rice, coconut milk, or tropical fruits.
- In India, traditional sweets such as gulab jamun, rasgulla, or payasam are popular, often made with milk, ghee, and sugar, and flavored with cardamom, saffron, or nuts.
- Desserts are not only about taste—they often carry emotional and cultural significance. Many people associate them with comfort, celebration, and joy.
- Though primarily sweet, some desserts may include savory elements, spices, or textures that balance their flavors.
- With the rise of modern gastronomy, desserts have also become a space for innovation, where chefs experiment with presentation, flavors, and techniques to elevate them into art forms
| Deserts are, in fact, some of the planet’s most ancient, varied, and resilient ecosystems, intricately adapted to survive in extreme environments. Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s land area, they support a remarkable range of plant and animal life, as well as human communities that have evolved unique ways of living in such climates. Despite their significance, deserts are often undervalued by people today—even though many of the world’s earliest civilizations, including those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley, arose in arid regions. Interestingly, some historians suggest that the very challenges posed by desert landscapes spurred human innovation, leading to the development of advanced irrigation methods and complex social structures necessary for survival in these tough conditions |
- Savannas, grasslands, and shrublands make up what are known as open ecosystems, which are typically defined by a continuous layer of grasses and little to no tree cover.
- In certain regions, however, the environment can also support scattered trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. The type and arrangement of vegetation in these ecosystems are largely influenced by broader environmental factors.
- Natural disturbances, such as fire and grazing by animals, have played a vital role in shaping and sustaining the dynamics of these ecosystems over time.
- Together, savannas and grasslands account for over half of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, extending across tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones.
- As a result, open ecosystems are incredibly diverse, encompassing a wide variety of landscapes and plant communities
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- India’s connection with open landscapes is marked by a striking contradiction. On one side, such spaces are idealized—real estate campaigns often showcase sprawling green lawns with aspirational names like Savana or Utopia.
- Yet, when it comes to the country’s own expansive natural open habitats—like grasslands, savannas, scrublands, and open woodlands—they are often neglected or worse, deliberately altered.
- Government records frequently label these ecosystems as "wastelands," a colonial-era classification that implies such land is unproductive and in need of improvement. In practice, this has meant converting these areas through afforestation, agriculture, or industrial development, rather than conserving them.
- This misclassification overlooks the ecological significance of these regions. India’s open ecosystems support rare and endemic species like the Great Indian Bustard, the caracal, and the Indian wolf. Unlike forests that store carbon in tall trees, these ecosystems store carbon primarily in their soil, playing a crucial role in climate regulation.
- These landscapes are also vital for millions of pastoralist communities—such as the Dhangar, Rabari, and Kuruba—who rely on them for grazing and livelihoods. When grasslands are enclosed or converted into artificial forests, it’s not only the natural ecosystem that suffers, but also the traditions, movement, and survival of these communities.
- In many cases, pastoralists serve as guardians of biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Yet, both India’s grasslands and the cultures that sustain them continue to receive inadequate recognition and protection in policy and practice
- Open ecosystems are not only important for their unique and ancient biodiversity but also for the vital ecological functions they perform. The vegetation in these landscapes plays a key role in regulating global environmental systems.
- It helps manage climate processes, controls environmental risks, and supports the health of natural resources by sustaining water availability and quality, sequestering carbon both above and below the ground, and supplying essential goods like food and fuel.
- These ecosystems also carry significant cultural and economic importance. They have supported human livelihoods for millennia and continue to do so today. In fact, it was within the grasslands and savannas of Africa that early humans first evolved.
- Over time, Indigenous communities around the world have shaped and maintained these ecosystems by using fire and managing animal populations. Societies across continents—whether in South America's Cerrado, North America's oak savannas, the Eurasian Steppes, or the vast open landscapes of Africa and Australia—maintain strong socio-cultural ties with these ecosystems, reflecting their deep-rooted historical and ecological relevance
Instead of attempting to convert deserts into forests, we should focus on understanding how life flourishes in conditions of scarcity. This doesn't mean we should ignore land degradation, but efforts to restore drylands must be thoughtful—rooted in native ecosystems, emphasizing soil and water conservation, and incorporating traditional land stewardship practices. Simple, time-tested methods such as water harvesting, rotational grazing, and protecting natural regeneration often prove more effective than high-profile tree-planting schemes that claim to “green” deserts but may disrupt the natural balance.
Our policies must acknowledge the ecological richness of diverse ecosystems, encourage soil-based carbon storage, and promote land use systems that support pastoralist communities. Healthy deserts and savannas, with their complex food chains, seasonal cycles, and longstanding human connections, are vibrant and functional landscapes—much more so than poorly conceived monoculture plantations. It may even be time to reconsider the name of World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, perhaps renaming it as the World Day to Combat Land Degradation, in order to restore dignity and recognition to deserts as vital ecosystems in their own right
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For Prelims: UNCCD, Extreme Weather events, Climate change
For Mains:
1. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) plays a vital role in addressing global environmental challenges. Discuss the key functions of the UNCCD and critically evaluate its effectiveness in achieving its objectives. (250 words)
2. Extreme weather events pose a significant threat to the global economy. Explain how desertification and climate change contribute to the occurrence of extreme weather events. Suggest mitigation strategies to address these challenges. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. What is/are the importance/importances of the 'United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification'? (UPSC 2016)
1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions.
3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
Mains
1. The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples. (UPSC 2020)
2. In what way micro-watershed development projects help in water conservation in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India? (UPSC 2016)
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HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
- Have you ever noticed how cranes lift heavy materials, excavators dig and move soil, or how aircraft landing gear extends and retracts? Despite their different functions, these machines all share a common mechanism: hydraulics. In each case, energy—whether from an electric motor or a combustion engine—is transformed into versatile mechanical motion through hydraulic systems.
- Hydraulic systems operate on Pascal’s law, named after the 17th-century French scientist Blaise Pascal. The law explains that when pressure is applied to a fluid that cannot be compressed, that pressure is distributed uniformly throughout the fluid. In simple terms, pressure refers to the force applied per unit area.
- In practice, when a force is exerted on the fluid in a hydraulic system, it creates pressure that spreads equally in all directions. This principle allows a relatively small force applied to a smaller area to produce a much greater force at a larger surface, as shown in illustrative examples.
- For instance, applying a minor force at one end of the system can result in a significantly amplified force at the other end by merely increasing the area where the pressure is applied—without altering the pressure itself. This is one of the most basic applications of hydraulics, but the technology is capable of much more than just lifting objects.
- Hydraulic systems offer several benefits over traditional mechanical energy transmission methods. These include smoother operation, a higher power-to-weight ratio, more effective heat management, better control, and greater precision
3. What are the parts of hydraulic systems?
Every hydraulic system typically consists of six core elements:
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Pumps – These convert mechanical input energy into hydraulic pressure and establish fluid flow.
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Pipes – These transport hydraulic fluid to the application points and return it to the reservoir.
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Valves – These manage the flow rate and direction of pressurized fluid.
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Actuators (linear or rotary) – These execute the mechanical output by converting hydraulic energy into motion.
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Reservoir (with filters) – This stores the hydraulic fluid.
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Sensors and switches – These are integrated as needed for operational efficiency or safety.
Among these, the essential active components are the pumps, valves, actuators, and in some cases, the sensors or switches. Components like reservoirs, filters, and piping mainly serve to store and transport the hydraulic fluid and do not participate directly in the dynamic operation.
In large-scale systems, oil cooling mechanisms are often added to counteract heat generated during prolonged use. In contrast, in colder climates, preheating devices are included to reduce oil viscosity before system startup.
Hydraulic pumps come in various forms—gear, axial piston, or variable displacement types—chosen according to the pressure and flow rate requirements of the specific application. These pumps may be powered either by electric motors or connected directly to combustion engines using a power take-off system.
Valves fall into three primary categories based on their function: regulating flow, directing fluid path, and controlling pressure. In simple setups, these valves may be operated manually, while more advanced systems use electrically controlled valves.
Actuators are critical for delivering mechanical work at the point of application. The most widely used type is the linear actuator or hydraulic cylinder, which operates using a sliding rod inside a cylindrical housing. These rods are often chrome-plated and easily identifiable on equipment like cranes or excavators. The force output depends on the fluid pressure, speed is influenced by the flow rate, and direction is determined by the direction of fluid flow.
Rotary actuators, or hydraulic motors, provide rotational movement instead of linear motion. They are used in systems where circular motion is required, such as powering a winch. Here, the fluid’s flow rate, pressure, and direction control the motor’s speed, torque, and rotation direction, respectively.
4. How do hydraulic systems work?
Hydraulics is based on Pascal’s Law, which states:
“When pressure is applied to an incompressible fluid in a confined space, it is transmitted equally in all directions.”
This means that if you apply a small force to a fluid in one part of the system, it can create a larger force elsewhere, depending on the surface areas involved
Key Components and Their Roles
A typical hydraulic system has the following main parts:
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Pump: Converts mechanical energy (from a motor or engine) into hydraulic energy by pushing fluid into the system.
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Reservoir/Tank: Stores the hydraulic fluid (usually oil) and also helps in cooling and filtering.
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Valves: Control the direction, pressure, and flow of the fluid.
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Actuators:
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Linear actuators (hydraulic cylinders) produce straight-line (push/pull) motion.
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Rotary actuators (hydraulic motors) produce rotational motion.
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Pipes and Hoses: Transport the pressurized fluid between components.
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Filters and Sensors: Clean the oil and monitor system parameters
5. Applications of the hydraulic system
- Hydraulic systems are now widely used across diverse sectors such as agriculture, waste disposal, automation, and even renewable energy like wind turbines.
- They serve both mobile machinery—such as cranes and excavators that operate on tracks or wheels—and stationary equipment, including hydraulic presses, molding machines, and windmills, where the core system remains fixed.
- Globally, the hydraulics industry is valued between $45–50 billion and continues to expand steadily.
- With advancements in electronics and increased electrification, hydraulic systems are evolving to integrate modern technologies. Today’s systems often feature sensors that monitor variables like motion, temperature, pressure, fluid flow, and even contamination levels in oil.
- These enhancements not only aim to boost safety but also help gather data that improves system performance and supports predictive maintenance.
- However, hydraulic systems are not without limitations. Their current overall energy efficiency—from engine input to final mechanical output—hovers around 30–40%.
- Engineers and researchers are actively working to increase this efficiency while also addressing environmental concerns.
- Despite ongoing efforts to replace hydraulics with electrical alternatives, such substitutions are mostly effective only in smaller-scale applications. For larger, more complex systems, hydraulics continues to offer unmatched advantages
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For Prelims: Pascal's Law, hydraulic system, combustion engine
For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology
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IRAN-ISRAEL
The history of Iran-Israel relations is complex, marked by periods of cooperation and deep hostility, shaped by political, ideological, and strategic developments.
Early Relations (Pre-1979)
- Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a cordial and strategic relationship under the Pahlavi dynasty, particularly during the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign.
- Iran, under the Shah, recognized Israel in 1948 as one of the first Muslim-majority countries to do so, driven by shared interests against Arab nationalism and the Soviet influence in the region.
- During the Cold War, Iran supplied Israel with oil, and trade flourished, including the operation of the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline, a joint venture. Military cooperation, such as the secretive Project Flower (1977-79) to develop a missile, also occurred.
- This alliance was bolstered by Israel’s support during World War II, when Iran provided refuge to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, a historical bond some trace back 2,500 years to Persian-Jewish ties.
Shift After the 1979 Revolution
- The Iranian Revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, marked a dramatic turning point. The establishment of the Islamic Republic brought an anti-Israel ideology, rooted in opposition to Zionism and support for the Palestinian cause.
- Iran severed diplomatic ties with Israel, nationalized the oil industry, and began supporting groups like Hezbollah and Palestinian factions (e.g., Hamas) as proxies against Israel.
- The 1979 U.S. Embassy hostage crisis and Iran’s vote against Israel’s UN admission in 1949 further solidified this stance. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) saw Israel secretly supplying arms to Iran, a pragmatic move despite the ideological rift, though this did not mend relations.
Escalation into Proxy and Direct Conflict
Since the 1980s, the relationship evolved into a proxy war, with Iran backing militias (e.g., Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthis in Yemen) to encircle Israel, while Israel conducted covert operations against Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence. Key events include:
- 2000s-2010s: Israel’s alleged cyberattacks (e.g., Stuxnet in 2010) and assassinations of Iranian nuclear scientists (e.g., Mohsen Fakhrizadeh in 2020) aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear ambitions, which Israel views as an existential threat. Iran, claiming its program is peaceful, retaliated through proxy attacks.
- 2024: Direct confrontations escalated with Iran launching ballistic missiles at Israel in April and October, following Israeli strikes on Iranian targets in Syria. The killing of Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh in Tehran in July 2024 and Hezbollah’s Fuad Shukr heightened tensions.
- 2025: On June 13, Israel launched a major attack on Iran, targeting nuclear and military sites, killing senior figures like IRGC commander Hossein Salami. Iran retaliated with missile barrages, marking the most intense direct conflict to date, with significant casualties reported on both sides by June 18, 2025
India maintains a neutral stance on the Iran-Israel conflict, prioritizing diplomacy, regional stability, and its strategic interests amid the ongoing escalation. Here’s an overview of India’s stakes and position:
India’s Stakes
India’s economic and strategic interests are significantly tied to both Iran and Israel, making the conflict a critical concern:
- Energy Security: India imports over 80% of its crude oil from West Asia, with Iran historically being a key supplier despite reduced volumes due to U.S. sanctions. The current conflict has spiked oil prices (Brent crude nearing $78 per barrel), threatening inflation and India’s current account deficit. The potential closure of the Strait of Hormuz, through which nearly two-thirds of India’s oil and half its LNG pass, poses a severe risk.
- Trade and Connectivity: Iran’s Chabahar port, developed with a $370 million Indian investment, is vital for trade with Central Asia and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan. The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), involving Iran and Russia, could face disruptions. Trade with Israel ($1.6 billion imports, $2.1 billion exports in 2024-25) and Iranian trade ($1.4 billion exports, $441 million imports) are also at risk.
- Indian Diaspora: Approximately 18,000 Indians in Israel and 10,000 in Iran are vulnerable, prompting evacuation advisories and embassy support.
- Defense and Economy: Israel is a top defense supplier (drones, missile systems), while companies like Sun Pharma and Adani Group have stakes in Israel. A prolonged conflict could disrupt these sectors and raise freight costs, impacting India’s $120 billion merchandise trade with Europe and the U.S.
The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a strategic multi-modal connectivity initiative launched during the G20 Summit in New Delhi on September 9, 2023, through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by India, the United States, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), France, Germany, Italy, and the European Union. It aims to enhance economic development by fostering connectivity and integration between Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe, serving as a counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
Structure and Objectives
- Corridors: IMEC comprises two main segments:
- Eastern Corridor: Connects India to the Arabian Gulf via ports, railways, and roads.
- Northern Corridor: Links the Gulf to Europe through rail and maritime networks.
- Infrastructure: The project includes railways, ship-to-rail networks, road transport, electricity cables, high-speed data cables, and hydrogen pipelines to facilitate trade, energy, and digital connectivity.
- Goals: It seeks to reduce transit times by 40% and costs by 30% compared to the Suez Canal route, boost trade, enhance supply chain resilience, and promote green energy (e.g., solar power, green hydrogen) and digital integration
- Origin: The conflict intensified with Hamas’s surprise assault on October 7, 2023, killing over 1,200 Israelis, mostly civilians, and taking 251 hostages. Israel responded with a declaration of war, launching airstrikes and a ground invasion of Gaza, aiming to dismantle Hamas and free hostages. A brief ceasefire in late January to early March 2025 included hostage exchanges but collapsed after failed negotiations, resuming hostilities in March 2025.
- Current Status: The Gaza war has seen over 54,000 Palestinian deaths and 1,700 Israeli deaths by early June 2025, according to official figures, though these numbers are contested. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) reported killing Hamas leaders like Yahya Sinwar and Mohammed Deif, but U.S. intelligence suggests Hamas has recruited replacements, indicating resilience. The conflict’s focus has shifted somewhat due to Israel’s Operation Rising Lion against Iran, launched on June 12, 2025, targeting Iranian nuclear and military sites, which has drawn international attention away from Gaza.
- Humanitarian Crisis: Nearly 90% of Gaza’s 2.3 million population has been displaced, with acute food insecurity and no functioning hospitals reported. Israeli evacuation orders cover 80% of Gaza, and aid distribution sites have faced deadly incidents, with dozens killed by Israeli fire in recent weeks, as reported by Palestinian health officials. The blockade and destruction of infrastructure have fueled accusations of war crimes from human rights groups
The Iran-Israel conflict, now in its sixth day following Israel’s Operation Rising Lion on June 13, 2025, has escalated into direct military confrontation, with devastating airstrikes, significant casualties, and threats to nuclear and energy infrastructure. This escalation has overshadowed the ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict, where Gaza remains a humanitarian crisis zone with over 54,000 Palestinian and 1,700 Israeli deaths since October 7, 2023, and no immediate resolution in sight. The broader regional instability threatens trade routes, energy supplies, and diplomatic relations, drawing in global powers like the U.S., Russia, and China, each with competing interests
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For Prelims: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)
For Mains: GS II - International relations
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