FLASH FLOODS

2. What is a Flood

• Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
• Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. 
• Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break. 
• Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop. 
• Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer. 
• Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.

3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.

These factors include -

• Meteorological factors

• Physical factors

• Human factors

 3.1 Meteorological Factors

The natural causes of floods are discussed below -

• Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
• Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.

• Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
• Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
• Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
• Cyclone & Heavy rainfall

3.2. Physical Factors.

• Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.

• Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.

3.3. Human Factor

• Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.

• Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood. 

• Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.

• Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs

• Unplanned Development

• Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

 4.Types of Flood

• Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.

• Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.

• River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.

• Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.

• Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.

The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences. 

• Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.

• Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.

• Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.

• Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.

• Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.

• Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.

Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:

• Attempts to modify the flood
• Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
• Attempts to modify the loss burden
• Bearing the loss.
• The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.

6.1 Structural measures

The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:

• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.

6.2 Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures include:

• Flood forecasting and warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Floodproofing
• Flood insurance.

7.What are Flash Floods

• Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed. 
• Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time. 
• They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.

 8. Status of Floods in India

8.1 NDRF Report

• 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
• On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.

8.2 Statistics

• Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
• 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.

9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?

• Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
• Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land. 
• Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream. 
• Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly. 
• Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding. 
• Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
• Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
• Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
• Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.

10. The impact of floods in India

11. Impact of flood on wildlife

12. Government actions regarding flood management

12.1.The National Flood Management Commission

• Launched in 1954
• Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.

• To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
• It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.

• It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
• It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.

12.4.National Water Policy, 2002

• It recommended
• Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
• Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
• More emphasis on non-structural measures.
• Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.

12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were

• Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
• In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
• Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.

DEFENCE ACQUISITION COUNCIL

 

1. Context

The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC), chaired by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh, sanctioned multiple procurement proposals worth about ₹67,000 crore to strengthen the nation’s military preparedness.

 

2. About the Defence Acquisition Council

The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) is the apex body for all defence acquisitions in India. It was formed after recommendations made by the Group of Ministers on 'Reforming the National Security System' in 2001, post-Kargil war. The DAC is headed by the Defence Minister and comprises the following members:

• Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS)
• Secretary, Department of Defence Production
• Secretary, Finance
• Secretary, Defence Research and Development
• Controller General of Defence Accounts
• Other senior officers from the Ministry of Defence and the Services

The Role of the Defence Acquisition Council

The DAC's primary role is to:

• Accord approval for AoN (Acceptance of Necessity) for Capital Acquisition Proposals.
• Categorise the acquisition proposals into 'Buy, Buy & Make, & Make'.
• In-principle approval of 15-Year Long-Term Integrated Perspective Plan (LTPP) for Defence Forces.
• Delegate powers to Services/C&AS for the acquisition of items up to a certain value.
• Consider and approve other issues as may be referred to it by the Defence Minister.

Functions of the Defence Acquisition Council

The DAC's primary functions are to:

• Approve capital acquisitions for the Indian Armed Forces.
• Formulate and implement policies and procedures for defence acquisitions.
• Monitor the progress of defence acquisitions.
• Oversee the implementation of the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP).

Reasons for the creation of the Defence Acquisitions Council 

The DAC was created to address the following shortcomings of the previous defence acquisition system:

• Lack of a clear and transparent decision-making process.
• Delays in the procurement of defence equipment.
• Escalation of costs.
• Lack of coordination between different agencies involved in the procurement process.

3. About Defence acquisition

Defence acquisition is the process of acquiring goods and services for the Indian Armed Forces. It is a complex and time-consuming process that involves the identification of requirements, the preparation of specifications, the selection of vendors, the negotiation of contracts, and the delivery of equipment. The Indian defence acquisition process is governed by the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP), which is a set of guidelines that outlines the process for acquiring defence equipment.

The key stages of the defence acquisition process:

•  The first step is to identify the requirements of the Armed Forces. This is done through a detailed assessment of the operational needs of the Armed Forces and the availability of resources.
• Once the requirements have been identified, the next step is to prepare the specifications for the equipment to be acquired. The specifications must be clear, detailed, and unambiguous so that the vendors can understand what is required.
• The next step is to select the vendors who will be invited to participate in the bidding process. The vendors are selected based on their technical ability, financial strength, and experience.
• Once the vendors have been selected, the next step is to negotiate the contracts. The contracts must be fair and reasonable, and they must protect the interests of the government.
• The final step is to deliver the equipment to the Armed Forces. Once the equipment has been delivered, it must be tested and accepted by the Armed Forces.

4. The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP)

The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) is the guideline for defence acquisitions in India. The DPP was first introduced in 2006 and has been revised several times since then. The DPP outlines the process for defence acquisitions, from the identification of a requirement to the final acceptance of a product.

The DPP is designed to ensure that defence acquisitions are conducted in a transparent, efficient, and cost-effective manner. The DPP also seeks to promote indigenous defence production and to maximize the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector.

Key features of the DPP

• The DPP emphasizes the need for transparency in all stages of the defence acquisition process. This includes publishing all relevant documents online and making them available to the public.
• The DPP aims to streamline the defence acquisition process and reduce delays. This includes simplifying the tendering process and reducing the number of approvals required.
• The DPP seeks to ensure that defence acquisitions are conducted cost-effectively. This includes negotiating the best possible price for goods and services and promoting indigenous defence production.
• The DPP promotes indigenous defence production by giving preference to Indian companies in the tendering process. The DPP also provides incentives for Indian companies to invest in research and development.
• The DPP seeks to maximize the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector. This includes encouraging Indian companies to form joint ventures with foreign companies.

5. The Way Forward

The DAC and the DPP play a vital role in ensuring that the Indian Armed Forces are equipped with the latest and best possible weapons and equipment. The DAC and the DPP are also important for promoting indigenous defence production and for maximizing the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector.

 

For Prelims: Defence Acquisition Council, Defence Procurement Procedure, Light Combat Aircraft, Tejas Mk 1 A and 156, Light Combat Helicopters, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Kargil war For Mains:  1. Critically analyze the role of the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) in streamlining and expediting defence acquisitions in India. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. The Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) designed and developed by HAL is also known as (MP Police Constable 2017) A. Suryakiran        B. Aryabhatta      C. Tejas         D. Prakash     2. Which of the following statements is true about the recent procurement of Tejas fighter’s aircraft by IAF? (IB ACIO Grade II 2021)  (1) The IAF has recently purchased 83 Tejas fighters aircraft from HAL (2) The total deal is Rs. 78,000-crore A. 1 only         B. Neither 1 nor 2         C.  Both 1 and 2      D. 2 only     3. What is the name of India's indigenously built Light Combat Helicopter? (OSSC BSSO  2022)  A. Nag         B. Trishul         C. Prachand          D. Agni     4. The headquarters of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is located at _______________. (MP Police Constable 2017)  A. Chennai        B. Bengaluru        C.  Dewas     D. Koraput     5. What was Kargil war otherwise known as? (MP Patwari  2017)  A. Operation Vijay       B. Operation Vishwas   C. Operation Shaurya   D. Operation Paramveer   Answers:1-C, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B 5-A   Mains 1. Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the Agreement. (UPSC 2013)

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

PREVENTION OF MONEY LAUNDERING ACT (PMLA)

1. Context

A report submitted by the Finance Minister in the Rajya Sabha states that 5,892 cases were taken up by the Enforcement Directorate (ED) under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) 2002, since 2015. Of these cases, only 15 convictions have yet been ordered by special courts. The government claims that investigations have been initiated in more or less all cases, and that Enforcement Case Information Reports (ECIRs) have been issued to initiate proceedings. However, these figures raise two important aspects

2. Why is the PMLA verdict under review?

The PMLA verdict is under review because of several concerns raised by petitioners and legal experts about the constitutionality of the law and the extent of the powers granted to the Enforcement Directorate (ED).

Specific Concerns

• The PMLA's retrospective application, allowing for the prosecution of offences committed before the law's enactment, has been challenged as violative of the fundamental right against ex post facto laws.
• The PMLA places the burden of proof on the accused to establish innocence, a departure from the general principle of criminal law that presumes innocence until proven guilty.
• Critics argue that the PMLA's provisions are overly broad and draconian, giving the ED excessive powers to arrest, detain, and seize assets without adequate judicial oversight.
•  The PMLA's lack of adequate safeguards against arbitrary actions and misuse of power has raised concerns about the potential for abuse of authority by the ED.
•  The PMLA's provisions have been criticized for potentially infringing upon fundamental rights such as the right to personal liberty, the right to property, and the right against self-incrimination.

3. Money laundering

• Money laundering is the illegal process of making large amounts of money.
• This money is generated by criminal activity but may appear to come from a legitimate source.
• Criminal activities include drug trafficking, terrorist funding, illegal arms sales, smuggling, prostitution rings, insider trading, bribery and computer fraud schemes that produce large profits.

3.1. Different stages in money laundering

Generally, money laundering is a three-stage process:

1. Placement: The crime money is injected into the formal financial system.
2. Layering: Money injected into the system is layered and spread over various transactions and book-keeping tricks to hide the source of origin.
3. Integration: Laundered money is withdrawn from the legitimate account to be used for criminal purposes. Now, Money enters the financial system in such a way that the original association with the crime is disassociated.  The money now can be used by the offender as legitimate money.

All three sources may not be involved in money laundering. Some stages could be combined or repeated many times.

3.2. Impact of Money Laundering on Economic Development

Money laundering can have a significant impact on economic development by:

• When money laundering occurs, it can undermine public confidence in banks and other financial institutions. This can lead to increased risk aversion and a decline in investment, which can hamper economic growth.
• Money laundering can distort economic activity by directing funds away from legitimate businesses and into criminal enterprises. This can lead to inefficient allocation of resources and slower economic growth.
• Money laundering can facilitate corruption by providing a means to conceal the proceeds of corrupt activities. This can weaken governance and undermine the rule of law, further hindering economic development.
• Money laundering can also lead to a loss of tax revenue, as criminals seek to evade taxes on their illicit gains. This can deprive governments of much-needed funds for essential services, such as education and healthcare.
• Money laundering is often used to finance organized crime groups, which can lead to an increase in violence and instability.
• Money laundering can also be used to finance terrorist activities, posing a serious threat to international security.
• Money laundering can also have a direct impact on individuals and businesses, who may lose money or be victims of fraud as a result of this crime.

4. Prevention of Money-Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA)

The Prevention of Money-Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) is a comprehensive legislation enacted by the Indian Parliament to combat money laundering and other financial crimes. It aims to prevent the use of proceeds of crime, particularly those derived from drug trafficking, organized crime and corruption, from being laundered and utilized to finance further criminal activities or to gain legitimacy.

4.1. Key Features of the PMLA

• The PMLA prohibits the process of money laundering, defined as the act of concealing or disguising the proceeds of crime.
• The PMLA empowers the Enforcement Directorate (ED), the designated agency for investigating money laundering cases, to attach and seize property derived from or involved in money laundering.
• The PMLA provides for the confiscation of property that is involved in money laundering, even if it is not in the possession of the accused person.
• The PMLA grants the ED extensive powers to conduct searches, make arrests, and detain individuals suspected of money laundering.
• The PMLA facilitates international cooperation in combating money laundering through mutual legal assistance treaties and other mechanisms.

4.2. Significance of the PMLA

The PMLA has played a crucial role in strengthening India's anti-money laundering framework and enhancing its global standing in combating financial crimes. It has enabled the investigation and prosecution of numerous money laundering cases, leading to the recovery of substantial illicit funds.

4.3. Challenges in Implementing the PMLA

Despite its significance, the implementation of the PMLA has faced certain challenges, including:

• The PMLA and other laws, such as the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, have overlapping jurisdictions, which can lead to confusion and delays in investigations.
• There have been concerns about the lack of adequate safeguards against arbitrary actions and misuse of power under the PMLA.
• The ED faces resource constraints in terms of manpower and infrastructure, which can hamper its ability to effectively investigate and prosecute money laundering cases.

 

5. About the Directorate of Enforcement 

 

• The Directorate of Enforcement (ED) is an agency in India that primarily deals with the enforcement of economic laws and regulations to combat money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and financial fraud.
• The ED is part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
• The Directorate of Enforcement was established on 1st May 1956, as the "Enforcement Unit" within the Department of Economic Affairs.
• Its primary focus was on preventing and detecting violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947.
• Over the years, the agency's role expanded, and in 1999, the Enforcement Directorate was established as a separate entity under the Ministry of Finance.
• The enactment of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) in 2002 further broadened its jurisdiction, giving it the power to investigate cases related to money laundering.
• Since its establishment, the ED has played a crucial role in combating economic offences and ensuring compliance with economic laws in India.
• It has been involved in several high-profile cases, including those related to financial scams, money laundering by influential individuals, and cross-border financial crimes.
• The ED collaborates with various domestic and international agencies, including financial intelligence units, law enforcement agencies, and Interpol, to gather information, share intelligence, and effectively coordinate efforts to combat economic offences.

5.1. Functions and Roles of ED

• Enforcing Economic Laws: The primary function of the ED is to enforce two key economic laws in India: the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA). It ensures compliance with these laws and investigates money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and economic fraud cases.
• Money Laundering Investigations: The ED investigates cases involving money laundering, which is the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money to make it appear legitimate. It identifies and seizes properties and assets derived from illicit activities and prevents their further use.
• Foreign Exchange Violations: The ED is responsible for investigating cases related to violations of foreign exchange laws and regulations. It monitors and controls foreign exchange transactions to maintain the stability of the Indian rupee and prevent illegal activities such as smuggling and illegal money transfers.
• Financial Frauds: The ED also investigates and takes action against financial frauds, including bank frauds, Ponzi schemes, and other fraudulent activities affecting the Indian financial system. It works closely with other law enforcement agencies, such as the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), to tackle complex financial crimes.

 

For Prelims: Prevention of Money Laundering Act, ED, CBI, Foreign Exchange Management Act,  For Mains:  1. Critically evaluate the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) in its effectiveness in combating money laundering in India. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which one of the following is not correct in respect of Directorate of Enforcement? (CDS  2021) A. It is a specialized financial investigation agency under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance. B. It enforces the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. C. It enforces the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002. D. It enforces the Prohibition of Benami Property Transaction Act, 1988.   2. The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 become effective since which one of the following dates? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2012)   A. July 2002          B. August 2003        C. July 2004         D. July 2005   3. FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) was finally implemented in the year (UPPSC  2013) A. 1991         B. 1997         C. 2000             D. 2007   4. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act was replaced by the ______ in India. (SSC Steno 2020)  A. Foreign Exchange Currency Act B. Foreign Exchange Finances Act C. Foreign Exchange Funds Act D. Foreign Exchange Management Act   5. "Central Bureau of Intelligence and Investigation" is listed in the __________ list given in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2017)  A. Union             B. State             C. Global          D. Concurrent   Answers: 1-D, 2-D, 3-C, 4-D, 5-A

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES (NBFC)

 

 

 

1. Context

Non Banking Finance Corporations’ (NBFC) assets under management (AUM) growth may soften to 18.5% in FY26 from 25% in FY25 after bank funding to the sector reduced even as the RBI normalised risk weights, credit rating agency India Ratings said.

 

2. What are the non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)?

 

• Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) are financial institutions that provide banking services but do not hold a banking license.
• They are crucial to the financial system as they cater to the financial needs of sectors where traditional banks may not reach or provide services.
• NBFCs offer various financial services such as loans and advances, acquisition of shares/stocks/bonds/debentures/securities issued by Government or local authority, leasing, hire-purchase, insurance business, chit business, etc.
• They differ from traditional banks because they cannot accept demand deposits and do not form part of the payment and settlement system like banks do.
• However, they play a significant role in providing credit to individuals, small businesses, and the unorganised sector, thereby contributing to financial inclusion and economic growth. Examples of NBFCs include companies engaged in equipment leasing, hire-purchase finance, vehicle finance, and microfinance

3. Classification of NBFCs

NBFCs can be classified into various categories based on their activities, ownership structure, and regulatory requirements.

Here are some common classifications:

• Asset Financing NBFCs: These NBFCs primarily provide financing for the purchase of assets such as vehicles, machinery, equipment, etc.

• Investment and Credit NBFCs: These NBFCs primarily make investments in securities or extend credit facilities.

• Infrastructure Finance Companies (IFCs): These NBFCs focus on financing infrastructure projects such as roads, ports, power, telecommunications, etc.

• Housing Finance Companies (HFCs): These NBFCs specialize in providing finance for housing and related activities.

• Microfinance Institutions (MFIs): These NBFCs provide financial services, including small loans, savings, and insurance, to low-income individuals and microenterprises.

• Non-Deposit Taking NBFCs: These NBFCs do not accept deposits from the public. They rely on other sources of funding such as borrowings from banks, financial institutions, and capital markets.

• Deposit Taking NBFCs: These NBFCs accept deposits from the public and are regulated more closely, similar to banks, to ensure the safety of depositor funds.

• Systemically Important NBFCs (SI-NBFCs): These are NBFCs whose failure could potentially disrupt the financial system. They are subject to additional regulatory requirements to mitigate systemic risks.

• Core Investment Companies (CICs): These NBFCs are primarily engaged in the business of acquisition of shares and securities and hold not less than 90% of its Total Assets in the form of investment in equity shares, preference shares, bonds, debentures, debt, or loans in group companies.

• Infrastructure Debt Funds (IDFs): These NBFCs are set up to facilitate the flow of long-term debt into infrastructure projects.

4. What is the 50-50 Criteria of Principal Business?

 

• The 50-50 criteria of principal business refers to a regulatory guideline set by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for determining whether a company's principal business is that of a Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC).
• According to this criterion, if more than 50% of a company's total assets or gross income comes from financial assets or income derived from financial assets, it is considered to be primarily engaged in the business of an NBFC. In other words, if at least 50% of the company's assets or income is from financial activities, it falls under the purview of NBFC regulations.
• This guideline helps to differentiate between companies engaged primarily in non-financial activities with some incidental financial activities and those whose main business revolves around financial services, thereby ensuring appropriate regulation and supervision of NBFCs by the RBI. It is an important criterion used by regulators to determine the regulatory classification of companies operating in the financial sector

5.RBI rules on Non Banking Financial Companies

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) regulates Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India to ensure financial stability, consumer protection, and the smooth functioning of the financial system.

 

Some of the key rules and regulations imposed by the RBI on NBFCs include:

• NBFCs need to obtain a Certificate of Registration (CoR) from the RBI to commence or carry on the business of non-banking financial institution.
• RBI imposes prudential regulations on NBFCs to ensure the safety and soundness of their operations. These norms cover aspects such as capital adequacy, income recognition, asset classification, provisioning, liquidity management, and exposure limits.
• NBFCs are required to adhere to a Fair Practices Code (FPC) prescribed by the RBI, which outlines the principles of transparency, fairness, and responsible lending practices.
• NBFCs are mandated to follow KYC norms while onboarding customers, including verification of identity, address, and other relevant information, to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing activities
• NBFCs are required to implement effective AML/CFT measures, including customer due diligence, transaction monitoring, and reporting of suspicious transactions, to mitigate the risks of money laundering and terrorist financing.
• RBI mandates NBFCs to adhere to good corporate governance practices, including the composition of the board of directors, risk management framework, internal controls, and disclosure requirements
•  NBFCs are required to have robust risk management systems in place to identify, assess, monitor, and mitigate various risks such as credit risk, market risk, liquidity risk, and operational risk.
• NBFCs need to submit various regulatory returns and reports to the RBI periodically, providing details of their financial performance, capital adequacy, asset quality, and compliance with regulatory requirements.
• RBI conducts regular inspections and supervisory reviews of NBFCs to assess their financial health, compliance with regulations, and adherence to best practices.
• RBI has the authority to issue directions, impose restrictions, and take corrective actions against NBFCs that fail to comply with regulatory requirements or pose risks to the financial system.

 

6. Way Forward

Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) play a vital role in India's financial landscape, serving as critical intermediaries between traditional banking institutions and underserved segments of the economy. With their diverse range of financial services and flexible approach to lending, NBFCs contribute significantly to promoting financial inclusion, fostering entrepreneurship, and driving economic growth. However, the regulatory framework governing NBFCs remains paramount in ensuring the stability and integrity of the financial system. As the sector continues to evolve and face new challenges, effective regulation, prudent risk management, and adherence to best practices will be essential for NBFCs to sustain their growth trajectory and fulfill their socio-economic mandate in a responsible and sustainable manner

 

 

For Prelims: Economy For Mains: GS-III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation, of resources, growth, development, and employment.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.The RBI acts as a bankers’ bank. This would imply which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2012) 1. Other banks retain their deposits with the RBI. 2. The RBI lends funds to the commercial banks in times of need. 3. The RBI advises the commercial banks on monetary matters. Select the correct answer using the codes given below : (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) The central bank, also known as the apex bank, has overarching control over a nation's banking system. It holds the exclusive authority for issuing currency and regulates the money supply within the economy. As outlined in the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the central bank fulfills several key functions: Banking functions: Acting as the banker, agent, and advisor to both the central and state governments, the Reserve Bank handles all banking operations for these entities. It extends advisory services to the government on economic and monetary policy matters and manages the public debt. Furthermore, it functions similarly to a commercial bank for other banks, including providing loans to all commercial banks nationwide. Supervisory functions: The central bank supervises and monitors other banks and governmental entities, guiding them through various economic conditions, especially during periods of inflation or deflation. Promotional functions: In addition to its regulatory role, the central bank undertakes promotional activities such as fostering connections with global economies and managing foreign reserves. These efforts contribute to representing the country's economy on the international stage. Advisory functions: Offering guidance on monetary issues to commercial banks is another essential role of the central bank, ensuring effective monetary policy implementation. 2.With reference to the Non-banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2010) They cannot engage in the acquisition of securities issued by the government. They cannot accept demand deposits like Savings Account. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only  (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b) Statement 1: They cannot engage in the acquisition of securities issued by the government. This statement is False. NBFCs can invest in government securities like bonds. Statement 2: They cannot accept demand deposits like Savings Account. This statement is True. NBFCs are unlike banks and cannot accept demand deposits that are withdrawable on demand. They can only accept fixed deposits with a predetermined maturity period

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

ARTICLE 370 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Context 

 

 

It is now six years since the abrogation of Article 370 of the Constitution and the reorganisation of the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories (UTs).

 

 

2. About Article 370 and Federalism

 

 

Article 370 of the Indian Constitution was a temporary provision that granted special autonomy to the region of Jammu and Kashmir. It was drafted in 1947, following the Instrument of Accession that allowed Jammu and Kashmir to accede to the newly formed Union of India. In August 2019, the Indian government revoked Article 370 through a presidential order. 

 

Federalism in India refers to the system of governance where political authority and powers are divided between the central government and the various states and union territories that constitute the country. The federal structure of India is enshrined in the Constitution, which outlines the distribution of powers between the Union (central government) and the states, providing for a cooperative and coordinated relationship between them. 

Impact on Federalism

• The lead judgment highlighted that Jammu and Kashmir had relinquished any 'element of sovereignty' post the execution of the Instrument of Accession in 1947.
• Constitutional experts believe these observations will significantly impact federalism, a fundamental aspect of the Indian Constitution.
• Justices Sanjay Kishan Kaul and Sanjiv Khanna concurred with the lead judgment, solidifying the unanimous stance of the Supreme Court on the matter.
• Legal experts anticipate a lasting impact on federalism, considering it a basic feature of the Indian Constitution.
• The judgment's interpretation of J&K's historical context and its relation to the Union could set a precedent for future federalism-related cases.
• The Supreme Court dismissed the petitioners' arguments, reasoning that challenging the irreversibility of presidential actions could paralyze everyday administrative functions.
• It emphasized that the exercise of such power must have a reasonable connection to the objective of the Presidential Proclamation.
• The burden of proof was placed on those challenging the President's actions during an emergency to establish a 'mala fide or extraneous exercise of power.'
• The court referred to the precedent set in S. R. Bommai versus Union of India (1994), defining the scope of powers exercisable during the President's rule. This legal reference added weight to the court's justification for upholding the President's authority in the J&K case.

 

3. Conversion of State to Union Territory

 

The Supreme Court's recent ruling on Article 370 raises a crucial question: can a state be converted into a Union Territory in India? While the court avoided a definitive answer, it offered some key insights:

Court's Observations

• The court upheld the carving out of Ladakh from J&K, deeming it permissible under Article 3.
• The court did not address the validity of J&K's conversion due to the promised restoration of statehood.
• Views of the state legislature regarding such reorganization are only recommendations, not binding on Parliament.

Concerns and Cautions

• The Chief Justice warned of the negative consequences for autonomy, historical context, and federalism principles.
• Justice Khanna emphasized the "grave consequences" of lost elected government and diminished federalism. Strong and convincing grounds are required for such a conversion.

 

 

4. State's Role Minimized

 

The Supreme Court's ruling significantly diminishes the state's role in the context of abrogating Article 370. 

• The Court upheld the President's ability to unilaterally notify the cessation of Article 370 under Article 370(3). This bypasses the consultation requirement with the state government stipulated in Article 370(1)(d).
• The justification lies in the perceived equivalence of effects. Applying all Indian Constitution provisions through Article 370(1)(d) is seen as achieving the same outcome as issuing a notification under Article 370(3) to cease its existence. In both cases, the full Indian Constitution applies, rendering the State Constitution inoperative.
• While consultation is deemed irrelevant in this scenario, it would still be required if applying Indian Constitution provisions involved amending the State Constitution.

 

 

5. President's Power to Abrogate Article 370

 

• The Court's ruling clarifies the President's power in abrogating Article 370, addressing concerns about its dependence on the J&K Constituent Assembly, which dissolved in 1957:
• Despite the Assembly's absence, the Court ruled that the President's power to abrogate Article 370 under Article 370(3) remains and can be exercised "unilaterally."
•  Chief Justice Chandrachud argued that restricting the power after the Assembly's dissolution would "freeze the integration" of J&K into India, contradicting Article 370's intended purpose of gradual assimilation.
•  Article 370 aimed to bring J&K in line with other states over time, making the Assembly's recommendation secondary to this larger objective.
• This ruling grants the President significant unilateral authority in abrogating Article 370, even without the Assembly's input, raising questions about the balance of power and potential impact on J&K's autonomy.

 

6. About asymmetric Federalism

 

"Asymmetric federalism" refers to a system of federal government where different states within the federation possess varying degrees of autonomy and power. This means that not all states are created equal in terms of their relationship with the central government.

The Supreme Court's verdict on Article 370 clarifies its stance on Jammu and Kashmir's special status within the Indian federation:

• Unlike India's Constitution, the Court argues, J&K's own Constitution lacks any mention of "sovereignty." Therefore, Article 370 is understood as simply a particular arrangement within the broader framework of "asymmetric federalism."
• The Court compares Article 370 to provisions like Articles 371A-371J, which offer special arrangements for specific states. This emphasizes that J&K's status isn't unique but part of a wider pattern of accommodating state-specific needs.
• Accepting J&K's sovereignty based on Article 370, the Court argues, would imply similar claims for other states with special arrangements. This contradicts the fundamental principle of India's federalism, where all states possess the same core characteristic of being part of a single, sovereign nation.
• While acknowledging varying degrees of autonomy among states, the Court underlines that these variations are in "degree," not "kind." All states remain part of the same federal structure, sharing fundamental obligations and benefits.

 

 

For Prelims: Article 370, Jammu and Kashmir, Asymmetric Federalism, Article 356, President Rule, S. R. Bommai versus Union of India  For Mains:  1. Discuss the concept of "asymmetric federalism" and its relevance in the context of the J&K issue. Does the Supreme Court's ruling strengthen or weaken this principle? (250 Words) 2.  Critically analyze the Supreme Court's recent judgment upholding the abrogation of Article 370. How does it impact the concept of federalism in India? (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. When did the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir come into force? (UPSC CAPF 2016) A.26th January 1957 B. 15th August 1947 C. 25th July 1956 D.14th November 1947   2. State Legislature of Jammu and Kashmir can confer special rights and privileges on permanent residents of J and K with respect to - (MPSC 2019) Find the correct options below. (a) Employment under State Government (b) Settlement in the state (c) Acquisition of immovable property (d) Right to Scholarship (e) Right to entry into heritage sites A.  (a), (b), (c), (d), (e)     B. (a), (b), (c), (d)        C. (a), (b), (c)            D. (a), (b) Answers: 1-A, 2-B

 

Source: The Hindu 

 

 

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1. Context

India will need “soft” mandates – that could become more stringent over time – to accelerate electric vehicle (EV) adoption, the Centre’s apex public policy think tank NITI Aayog has said in a new report.

2. What are Electric Vehicles?

• An E-vehicle or Electric Vehicle is one that needs an electric motor to generate power and function instead of an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of gases and fuel.
• Electric Vehicles have a battery that can be charged by an electric supply.
• This electric energy is used to run the motor. There is a hybrid electric vehicle as well, which means a combination of an electric motor and a combustion engine.

3. Types of Electric Vehicles

• Plug-in electric – Such Electric Vehicles run purely on electricity, and it is powered when it is plugged in to charge. They don’t produce emissions like petrol or diesel.
• Plug-in hybrid – Their primary source of power is electricity, but these vehicles also have a fuel engine. These cars produce emissions only when they run on fuel engines but not when they run on electricity.
• Hybrid-electric – These Electric Vehicles primarily run on petrol or diesel, but they’re also fitted with an electric battery. One can charge the battery through regenerative braking. It comes with a button that lets you switch from using a fuel engine to using an electric battery (EV mode.)
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)– these vehicles use a highly efficient electrochemical process to convert hydrogen into electricity, and it powers the electric motor.

4. Initiatives by the Government

The government has set a target of 30% new sales of electric vehicles and two-wheelers by 2030. The government is working towards it by following the initiative and various government schemes.

National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)

• It is a road map/document for India’s fuel security by promoting and faster adoption of electric vehicles in India with the initial allocation of Rs 75 crore. The ambition is to have around 6 million vehicles on the road by 2020.
• This plan is for affordable and environmentally friendly transportation in the country and to achieve automotive leadership in global manufacturing.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME)

• The scheme was announced by the government in 2015 with the objective of market creation and developing a manufacturing ecosystem with sustainable development.
• It is formulated by the Department of Heavy Industry, having 4 key areas- technology creation, demand creation, pilot projects, and infrastructure related to charging.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME) II

• Based on the result and experience of phase I of the scheme, phase II was launched with an allocation of Rs 10000 Crore over three years, recently approved by the cabinet.
• This scheme vision a holistic approach to the EV industry, including infrastructure for charging, manufacturing of batteries, market creation, public demand, and push for EVs in public transport.
• It also offers incentives to the manufacturer of electric vehicles and their components.
• It enables the creation of charging infrastructure in selected cities and major highways at an interval of 25 km.

5. Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020

Electric Vehicle Policy 2020 has been announced by the Delhi Government, where it put emphasis on the replacement of two-wheelers, shared vehicles, public transport, and private four-wheelers with Electric Vehicles. Some of the Features of EV Policy 2020 are given below:

• As per Electric Vehicle Policy, the focus is given to e-mobility, which includes e-buses and e-autos.
• The government has decided to give low-interest loans so that people can purchase Electric Vehicles easily.
• The main goal of the E-Vehicle Policy in India is to reduce pollution and curb health issues in Delhi.
• State EV Fund will be introduced for the expenditure of EV Policy.

6. Challenges in promoting Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Adoption

• Subsidy Limitations: In contrast to countries like Norway, where extensive subsidies have spurred BEV adoption, India's subsidy structure primarily benefits the middle or upper middle classes. This inequality raises concerns about the effectiveness and fairness of upfront purchase subsidies, which tend to benefit those who can afford BEVs.
• Charging Network: Investing in comprehensive charging infrastructure is crucial for driving BEV adoption. Countries like Norway and China have seen success by expanding public charging stations while providing purchase subsidies. However, India's charging infrastructure remains insufficient, particularly for two- and three-wheelers, which dominate the vehicle mix. Adapting charging strategies to accommodate different vehicle types and power requirements is essential for promoting widespread adoption.
• Electricity Source: India's reliance on coal-fired thermal plants for electricity generation poses a challenge to the potential environmental benefits of BEVs. While EVs may reduce tailpipe emissions, continued reliance on thermal plants contributes to pollution. Shifting towards renewable energy sources is necessary to mitigate these concerns and achieve cleaner electric mobility.
• Limited Access to the Global Lithium Value Chain: India's heavy reliance on imports for lithium-ion batteries raises concerns about supply chain vulnerabilities. The concentration of global lithium production and key battery components in a handful of countries creates dependency risks. Diversification of the country's battery technology and exploring alternative options to lithium-ion batteries is crucial for long-term sustainability.
• Technology Agnostic Approach: While BEVs have gained traction in the two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments, the four-wheeler segment lags behind. Governments must adopt a technology-agnostic approach that encourages the adoption of various electrification technologies, including hybrids and fuel-cell vehicles. Such an approach promotes innovation, fosters competition, and allows manufacturers to meet emissions objectives irrespective of technology.
• Exploring Alternative Technologies: Hybrids serve as an intermediate step toward full electrification, offering improved fuel efficiency without relying solely on charging infrastructure. Additionally, exploring flex-fuel vehicles running on multiple fuel types, fuel cell electric vehicles, hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles, and synthetic fuels can provide alternative options for reducing emissions and promoting sustainable mobility.

For Prelims: Electric Vehicles, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME), Global Lithium Value Chain. For Mains: 1. Analyze the challenges and opportunities in promoting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in developing countries like India. Discuss the key factors that hinder EV penetration and propose strategies to overcome them.(250 Words)

 

 

Previous year Question 1. Which of the following Indian States/Union Territories launched Electric Vehicle Policy on 7th August 2020? (UPPSC 2020) A. Madhya Pradesh B. Uttar Pradesh C. Delhi D. Tamil Nadu Answer: C

Source: The Indian Express

 

CHOLAS

 

 

1.Context

 

Once again, public discourse is abuzz with the legacies of the Cholas — thanks to Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s recent visit to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, their erstwhile capital.

 

2.Cholas in South India

• Terms of the scale of accomplishments in art and architecture and the wealth of writing and epigraphic records, the Cholas would come across as one of the richest dynasties in South Indian history
• There is a profusion of inscriptions that give meticulous details about administration, social life, and material culture… The Brihadeshwara Temple alone which was consecrated in 1010 CE by Rajaraja I has nearly a hundred inscriptions.
• It is also claimed that the Cholas were one of the longest recorded dynasties in world history
• At the peak of their rule in the ninth and tenth centuries, the entire area south of the Tungabhadra River was brought together as a single unit under the Cholas.
• They were perhaps the only dynasty from Southern India to have moved north, marching into Eastern India, where Rajendra Chola is known to have defeated the Pala king of Pataliputra
• They were also the first empire with grand commercial and territorial ambitions outside of the Indian subcontinent

 

3.About Cholas

• The earliest references to the Cholas date as far back as the third century BCE and were made by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka
• However, very little evidence exists about the early Cholas, apart from the early Tamil literature of the third Sangam, and the references made about them in an ancient Graeco-Roman periplus written in the early centuries of the Common Era.
• The Chola Empire as we know it in all its glory emerged sometime in the mid-ninth century under King Vijayalaya Chola
• The dynasty of Vijayalaya left behind a vast number of stone inscriptions and some copper plate grants, which have, in the last few decades, been the main source for reconstructing the history of the Cholas.
• The Chola empire was at its most expansive under Arulmozhivarman, who on acceding to the throne in 985 CE, adopted the regnal title of Rajaraja or king of kings
• The doyen of South Indian history, Nilakantha Sastri, in his 1955 book The Cholas, writes that under Rajaraja I and his successors, the Chola Empire had reached the capacity of ‘Byzantine royalty’ “with its numerous palaces, officials and ceremonials and its majestic display of the concentrated resources of an extensive empire.” 
• According to Sastri, with the emergence of Rajaraja I, the monarchy underwent a substantial transformation, with the king now becoming an emperor. In his official records, Rajaraja I was referred to as the “emperor of the three worlds” or as possessing the whole universe.

4.Cholas vs Pandyas

The Cholas, along with the Pandyas of Madurai and the Cheras were the three great kingdoms of ancient Tamilakam which roughly corresponds to present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, Lakshadweep and the southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka By the time Rajaraja I came to the throne, the Cholas had gained the upper hand over the Pandyas and emerged as the primary power in the northern and eastern parts of the Tamil country.

 5.Cholas Expeditions

• Rajaraja Chola established himself as one of the most astute political and military strategists that southern India had ever seen
• By the close of the 10th century, he had overrun almost all of the Pandya territories and appointed his own governors there
• He then moved to Sri Lanka, ransacking some of the greatest of Buddhist viharas and establishing the presence of the Cholas through the building of Shiva temples.
• The expansion of the Chola empire continued under Rajaraja Chola’s son, Rajendra Chola, also known as Rajendra the Great or Gangaikonda Chola (the Chola who conquered Ganga)
• He built the Chola capital at Gangaikondacholapuram (close to present-day Tiruchirapalli) to commemorate his victory over the Pala dynasty in present-day Bengal in 1025 CE. 
•  He then erected a gigantic Shiva temple in it as a mark of thanksgiving to the lord.
• Rajendra became one of the only Indian monarchs to conquer territory outside the Indian subcontinent
• In 1025 CE, he sent a naval expedition to Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia. His expansion to Southeast Asia was crucial in establishing trade and cultural links with the region
• The influence of the Cholas can be seen in the language and society of large parts of Southeast Asia as well
• The deification of kings in Cambodia and Thailand as incarnations of Brahmanical Gods, for instance, is a most evident imprint of the Cholas.
• The medieval Chola empire began to decline in 1070 CE, after the death of Virarajendra Chola, the son of Rajendra Chola.
• A period of chaos prevailed, which ended with the emergence of the Later Cholas, a dynasty that was the product of alliances between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas.

6. Gangaikonda cholapuram

 

• Before Rajendra I, the Chola throne was held by his father, the renowned Rajaraja I, who was responsible for constructing the iconic Brihadeeswara Temple in Tanjore (modern-day Thanjavur).
• The term ‘Brihadeeswara’ translates to ‘great’ or ‘massive’—with ‘brihad’ in Sanskrit signifying largeness. Interestingly, this term is also associated with the temple established by Rajendra I, as listed in UNESCO’s World Heritage records.
• The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva and recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is often regarded as the zenith of Chola architectural achievement.
• It stands as a monumental symbol of the Chola Empire’s grandeur, reflecting an era when its influence extended from the banks of the Ganga in northern India to regions of Southeast Asia, including Sumatra, Malaysia, and Myanmar.
• Built around 1030 CE, roughly 20 years after the Brihadeeswara Temple, Rajendra’s temple followed a similar architectural style but displayed greater intricacy and finesse.
• This stylistic richness mirrors the Chola Empire’s prosperity during his reign. While the Tanjore temple features a tall, upright tower projecting power and dominance, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple is distinguished by its graceful curves and refined form—signaling a more confident and aesthetically sophisticated expression of imperial strength.
• Even today, the temple remains a vibrant cultural center, especially during the Aadi Thiruvadhirai festival. ‘Aadi’ refers to the Tamil month, and ‘Thiruvadhirai’ is a star (nakshatra) traditionally associated with Lord Shiva and believed to be Rajendra I’s birth star. As part of the festivities, therukoothu (street theatre) performances reenact the king’s accomplishments, and his statue is ceremonially adorned with new silk garments

7.Art & Culture

• From the 10th century onward, the Cholas more prominently started making structural temples
• The gigantic Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is perhaps one of the finest examples of the Cholas’ artistic brilliance
• Inscriptional evidence in Chola art also points to the prominent role played by royal women and dancers in the patronage of art and architecture
• One of the most celebrated patrons was the widowed queen of Gandaraditya Chola, Sembiyan Mahadevi.
• An avid temple builder, she is well known for her contributions to temples such as Umamaheshvar Temple at Konerirajapuram, Tirukkurangaduturai Temple at Aduturai, Tirukkotisvarar Temple at Tirukkodikkaval among other
• Under the Chalukyas you had the basic design of the structural temples coming in and under the Pallavas, the rock-cut temple art emerged. But it is the scale of temple building activities under the Cholas that mark them out
• The pyramidal vimana of the Brihadeshwara temple of 66 metres is one of the tallest buildings in antiquity
• The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple with its catenary-shaped vimana is also a unique engineering marvel

 

 

 

For Prelims: Chola Dynasty, Gangaikonda cholapuram, Raja raja I   For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture

 

Source: indianexpress