2. About cybercrime

Cybercrime is essentially any illegal activity that involves computers, networks, or digital devices. Criminals can use these tools to steal data, commit fraud, disrupt computer systems, or cause other harm. Some common types of cybercrime include:

• Stealing someone's personal information like their name, Social Security number, or credit card details to impersonate them and commit fraud.
• Tricking people into giving up their personal information or clicking on malicious links by disguising emails or websites as legitimate ones.
• Malicious software that can be installed on a computer to steal data, damage files, or disrupt operations.
• Gaining unauthorized access to a computer system or network to steal data, install malware, or cause damage.

3. What is NCRP?

The National Cybercrime Reporting Portal is an online platform established by the government of India to facilitate the reporting of cybercrimes by citizens. The portal allows individuals to report incidents of cybercrime in a streamlined and accessible manner.

Key features and functions of the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal include

• Individuals can report various types of cybercrimes such as online harassment, financial fraud, ransomware attacks, and identity theft. The portal provides specific categories for different types of cyber incidents to ensure proper documentation and handling.
• The portal places a special emphasis on crimes related to women and children, providing a dedicated section to report cases of online harassment, child pornography, and other related offences.
• The portal allows users to report crimes anonymously if they choose, ensuring the confidentiality and privacy of the complainant.
• Once a complaint is filed, the portal provides a tracking number which can be used to follow up on the status of the complaint.
• The portal offers resources and guidelines on how to protect oneself from cybercrime, as well as information on legal recourse and support available for victims.

5. What is the Budapest Convention?

The Budapest Convention, also known as the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, is the world's first international treaty specifically designed to address cybercrime. It came into effect in 2004 with three main objectives:

1. The convention aims to improve how countries investigate cybercrime by setting standards for collecting electronic evidence and fostering cooperation between law enforcement agencies.
2. It facilitates cooperation among member states in tackling cybercrime. This includes sharing information, assisting with investigations, and extraditing cybercriminals.
3. The convention encourages member countries to harmonize their national laws related to cybercrime. This creates a more unified approach to defining and prosecuting cyber offences.

India's Stand: India is not currently a party to the Budapest Convention. There are concerns that some provisions, like data sharing with foreign law enforcement agencies, might infringe on India's national sovereignty. India has also argued that it wasn't involved in drafting the initial convention.

6. What is the Global Cybersecurity Index?

The Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) is an initiative by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to measure and rank the cybersecurity capabilities of countries around the world. The index provides insights into the commitment of countries to cybersecurity at a global level, assessing their strengths and identifying areas for improvement. The key aspects of the Global Cybersecurity Index

Purpose

• To promote cybersecurity awareness and foster a global culture of cybersecurity.
• To encourage countries to enhance their cybersecurity infrastructure and strategies.
• To facilitate knowledge sharing and cooperation among nations.

Assessment Criteria

 The GCI evaluates countries based on five main pillars:

1. Examines the existence of cybersecurity legislation and regulatory frameworks.
2. Assesses the implementation of cybersecurity technologies and technical institutions.
3.  Looks at national cybersecurity strategies, policies, and dedicated agencies.
4. Evaluate the availability of cybersecurity education, training, and awareness programs.
5. Measures the extent of international and national cooperation in cybersecurity efforts.

Impact

 The GCI serves several important functions:

• Provides a benchmarking tool for countries to assess their cybersecurity maturity.
• Helps policymakers identify gaps and prioritize areas for improvement.
• Encourages international cooperation and collaboration to tackle global cyber threats.

7. The challenges related to cyber security in India

India faces numerous challenges related to cybersecurity, reflecting its rapidly growing digital economy and increasing reliance on technology. 

Increasing Cyber Threats:

• India has seen a significant rise in cybercrimes, including hacking, phishing, ransomware attacks, and identity theft. Sophisticated, state-sponsored attacks targeting critical infrastructure and sensitive data are becoming more common.
• Many public and private sector systems rely on outdated technology, making them vulnerable to attacks. Inadequate implementation of robust cybersecurity measures and protocols leaves systems exposed.
• There is a significant gap in the number of trained cybersecurity experts needed to protect against and respond to cyber threats. Ongoing education and training programs are insufficient to keep pace with evolving cyber threats.
• The absence of a unified regulatory framework complicates cybersecurity management. While laws like the IT Act 2000 exist, enforcement and implementation remain inconsistent and weak.
• Many individuals and small businesses lack awareness of basic cybersecurity practices. Practices like using weak passwords, not updating software, and falling for phishing scams are common.
• The absence of robust data protection legislation makes it difficult to safeguard personal and sensitive data. Ensuring privacy and protection of personal information remains a significant challenge.
• Effective cybersecurity often requires international cooperation, which is currently limited and inconsistent. Cross-border cyber threats and geopolitical tensions complicate collaboration and response efforts.
• The rapid adoption of IoT devices, often with minimal security features, increases vulnerabilities. While AI can enhance security, it also introduces new risks and attack vectors.
• Sectors like banking, healthcare, and energy are increasingly targeted, requiring enhanced protection measures. Ensuring coordinated efforts among various governmental and private entities involved in critical infrastructure protection is challenging.
• Limited financial resources allocated for cybersecurity initiatives hinder the development and implementation of comprehensive security measures.
• Staying abreast of the latest cybersecurity technologies and tools is difficult due to financial and logistical constraints.

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

DEEPFAKES

1. Context

 In what is a pioneering effort to tackle the rise of deepfake content, now ubiquitous across the Internet, Denmark has proposed extending copyright protections to individuals’ facial features, appearance, and voice.

2. What are Deepfakes

• Deepfake is a type of synthetic media in which a person in an already-existing video or image is replaced with another person. It manipulates the audio/video, which has the propensity to the device, using machine learning and artificial intelligence.
• Due to the ease with which bogus news, celebrity pornographic content, etc. get shared online, it has drawn attention.
• It makes a fake version of original or real audio-visual content by superimposing a new audio or image over an existing media file.
• In September 2019, the AI company Deeptrance discovered 15,000 deep fakes videos online-nearly tripling in just nine months. A starting 96% of them were pornographic, and 99% of them matched the faces of famous women to porn actors.
• Deepfakes can be used to damage reputation, fabricate evidence, defraud the public, and undermine trust in democratic institutions.
• All this can be achieved with fewer resources, with scale and speed, and even microtargeted to galvanize support.

3. How did Deepfakes Work?

• Deepfake content is created by using two competing AI algorithms- one is called the generator and the other is called the discriminator.
• The discriminator is tasked with determining if the fake multimedia content produced by the generator is real and manufactured.
• A generative adversarial network is created when the generator and discriminator work together (GAN). Every time the discriminator correctly recognizes the content as being fake, it gives the generator important insights into how to make the next deep fakes better.
• The first step in establishing a GAN is to identify the desired output and create a training dataset for the generator.
• Video clips can be supplied to the discriminator after the generator starts producing output at a level that is acceptable.

4. Who are the Victims?

• The first case of malicious use of deep fake was detected in pornography. According to sensity.ai, 96% of deepfakes are pornographic videos, with over 135 million views on pornographic websites alone. Deepfake pornography exclusively targets women.
• Pornographic deepfakes can threaten, intimidate, and inflict psychological harm. It reduces women to sexual objects causing emotional distress, and in some cases, leading to financial loss and collateral consequences like job loss.
• Deepfake could act as a powerful tool by a malicious nation-state to undermine public safety and create uncertainty and chaos in the target country. Deepfake can undermine trust in institutions and diplomacy.

5. Challenges with Deepfake

• Deepfake causes financial fraud, which poses problems for the entire financial system.
• In the era of the threat of fake news, it also poses a threat to the security of cyber systems and the validity of online registration.
• Deepfakes in phishing efforts would make it more challenging for people to recognize a hoax.
• In any nation, deep fakes can be used to sabotage democratic procedures like elections.
• The potential for harm to people, organizations, and societies is enormous since it can be used to generate phony pornographic videos and make politicians appear to say things they did not.
• Any genuine evidence of a crime can be easily discounted as false because the public is so distrustful due to the prevalence of deep fakes.
• Fake movies are likely to become more popular outside the world of celebrities as new technology enables unskilled people to create deep fakes with just a few images. This will feed the growth of revenge porn.
• The use of fake identities and impostor frauds in cybercrime is rising.

6. What is the Solution?

• Media literacy efforts must be enhanced to cultivate a discerning public. Media literacy for consumers is the most effective tool to combat disinformation and deep fakes.
• We also need meaningful regulations with a collaborative discussion with the technology industry, Civil society, and policymakers to develop legislative solutions to disincentivize the creation and distribution of malicious deepfakes.
• Social media platforms are taking cognizance of the deepfake issue, and almost all of them have some policy or acceptable terms of use for deepfakes.
• We also need easy-to-use and accessible technology solutions to detect deepfakes, authenticate media, and amplify authoritative sources.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Artificial Intelligence (AI), Deepfake Technology,  and AI algorithms. For Mains: 1. What are deepfakes and explain the challenges with deep-fake technology in the present technological world.

 

Source: The Hindu

 

OPEN ECOSYSTEMS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Deserts are often imagined as failures of nature, and barren wastelands in need of redemption. This worldview fuels grand ambitions to “green” the desert, through afforestation, irrigation schemes, or even climate engineering. This gives way to the idea that deserts are broken ecosystems. So pervasive is this vilification, that land degradation is also known as “desertification”, and June 17 every year is celebrated as World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought.

 

2. What is a desert?

 

 

• A dessert is the final course of a meal, typically served after the main dishes, and is usually sweet in flavor. It is meant to provide a pleasant and satisfying end to the dining experience.
• Desserts come in a wide variety of forms, including cakes, pastries, cookies, puddings, ice creams, custards, fruits, and confections such as chocolates or candies. In many cultures, desserts hold a special place not just in everyday meals but also in celebrations and festivals, where they are often prepared with extra care and tradition.
• The nature of desserts can vary greatly depending on geography, culture, and personal preference. For example, in Western cuisines, rich and indulgent desserts like cheesecakes or chocolate mousse are common, while in many Asian cuisines, desserts often involve ingredients like rice, coconut milk, or tropical fruits.
• In India, traditional sweets such as gulab jamun, rasgulla, or payasam are popular, often made with milk, ghee, and sugar, and flavored with cardamom, saffron, or nuts.
• Desserts are not only about taste—they often carry emotional and cultural significance. Many people associate them with comfort, celebration, and joy.
• Though primarily sweet, some desserts may include savory elements, spices, or textures that balance their flavors.
• With the rise of modern gastronomy, desserts have also become a space for innovation, where chefs experiment with presentation, flavors, and techniques to elevate them into art forms

Deserts are, in fact, some of the planet’s most ancient, varied, and resilient ecosystems, intricately adapted to survive in extreme environments. Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s land area, they support a remarkable range of plant and animal life, as well as human communities that have evolved unique ways of living in such climates. Despite their significance, deserts are often undervalued by people today—even though many of the world’s earliest civilizations, including those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley, arose in arid regions. Interestingly, some historians suggest that the very challenges posed by desert landscapes spurred human innovation, leading to the development of advanced irrigation methods and complex social structures necessary for survival in these tough conditions

 

 

3. What is an open space and indian spaces?

 

• Savannas, grasslands, and shrublands make up what are known as open ecosystems, which are typically defined by a continuous layer of grasses and little to no tree cover.
• In certain regions, however, the environment can also support scattered trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. The type and arrangement of vegetation in these ecosystems are largely influenced by broader environmental factors.
• Natural disturbances, such as fire and grazing by animals, have played a vital role in shaping and sustaining the dynamics of these ecosystems over time.
• Together, savannas and grasslands account for over half of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, extending across tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones.
• As a result, open ecosystems are incredibly diverse, encompassing a wide variety of landscapes and plant communities

 

Indian relationship with open spaces

• India’s connection with open landscapes is marked by a striking contradiction. On one side, such spaces are idealized—real estate campaigns often showcase sprawling green lawns with aspirational names like Savana or Utopia.
• Yet, when it comes to the country’s own expansive natural open habitats—like grasslands, savannas, scrublands, and open woodlands—they are often neglected or worse, deliberately altered.
• Government records frequently label these ecosystems as "wastelands," a colonial-era classification that implies such land is unproductive and in need of improvement. In practice, this has meant converting these areas through afforestation, agriculture, or industrial development, rather than conserving them.
• This misclassification overlooks the ecological significance of these regions. India’s open ecosystems support rare and endemic species like the Great Indian Bustard, the caracal, and the Indian wolf. Unlike forests that store carbon in tall trees, these ecosystems store carbon primarily in their soil, playing a crucial role in climate regulation.
• These landscapes are also vital for millions of pastoralist communities—such as the Dhangar, Rabari, and Kuruba—who rely on them for grazing and livelihoods. When grasslands are enclosed or converted into artificial forests, it’s not only the natural ecosystem that suffers, but also the traditions, movement, and survival of these communities.
• In many cases, pastoralists serve as guardians of biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Yet, both India’s grasslands and the cultures that sustain them continue to receive inadequate recognition and protection in policy and practice

 

4. Significance of Open ecosystems

 

• Open ecosystems are not only important for their unique and ancient biodiversity but also for the vital ecological functions they perform. The vegetation in these landscapes plays a key role in regulating global environmental systems.
• It helps manage climate processes, controls environmental risks, and supports the health of natural resources by sustaining water availability and quality, sequestering carbon both above and below the ground, and supplying essential goods like food and fuel.
• These ecosystems also carry significant cultural and economic importance. They have supported human livelihoods for millennia and continue to do so today. In fact, it was within the grasslands and savannas of Africa that early humans first evolved.
• Over time, Indigenous communities around the world have shaped and maintained these ecosystems by using fire and managing animal populations. Societies across continents—whether in South America's Cerrado, North America's oak savannas, the Eurasian Steppes, or the vast open landscapes of Africa and Australia—maintain strong socio-cultural ties with these ecosystems, reflecting their deep-rooted historical and ecological relevance

 

5. Way forward

 

Instead of attempting to convert deserts into forests, we should focus on understanding how life flourishes in conditions of scarcity. This doesn't mean we should ignore land degradation, but efforts to restore drylands must be thoughtful—rooted in native ecosystems, emphasizing soil and water conservation, and incorporating traditional land stewardship practices. Simple, time-tested methods such as water harvesting, rotational grazing, and protecting natural regeneration often prove more effective than high-profile tree-planting schemes that claim to “green” deserts but may disrupt the natural balance.

Our policies must acknowledge the ecological richness of diverse ecosystems, encourage soil-based carbon storage, and promote land use systems that support pastoralist communities. Healthy deserts and savannas, with their complex food chains, seasonal cycles, and longstanding human connections, are vibrant and functional landscapes—much more so than poorly conceived monoculture plantations. It may even be time to reconsider the name of World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, perhaps renaming it as the World Day to Combat Land Degradation, in order to restore dignity and recognition to deserts as vital ecosystems in their own right

 

 

For Prelims: UNCCD, Extreme Weather events, Climate change For Mains:  1. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) plays a vital role in addressing global environmental challenges. Discuss the key functions of the UNCCD and critically evaluate its effectiveness in achieving its objectives. (250 words) 2. Extreme weather events pose a significant threat to the global economy. Explain how desertification and climate change contribute to the occurrence of extreme weather events. Suggest mitigation strategies to address these challenges. (250 words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. What is/are the importance/importances of the 'United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification'? (UPSC 2016) 1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships. 2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions. 3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification. Select the correct answer using the code given below.  A. 1 only      B. 2 and 3 only   C.  1 and 3 only    D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C   Mains 1. The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples. (UPSC 2020) 2. In what way micro-watershed development projects help in water conservation in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India? (UPSC 2016)

Source: The Hindu

 

LINGUISTIC SECULARISM 

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s diversity in religion and language is one of the primary factors which protects the secular character of the nation, ensuring its unity and integrity. But while religion and language are the two most crucial aspects of any culture, these are also the predominant cross-cultural barriers. This is clearly visible in recent communal tensions and the violence in Maharashtra.

 

2. Linguistic Secularism in India

 

• India’s vast religious and linguistic diversity plays a vital role in upholding its secular fabric, contributing to national unity and cohesion. However, while these elements are central to any cultural identity, they often serve as major sources of cross-cultural tension. This is evident in recent incidents of communal unrest and violence, such as those witnessed in Maharashtra.
• The Indian model of secularism differs significantly from its Western counterpart. When secularism emerged in mid-19th century England, it emphasized a complete detachment between religion and state, without passing judgment on existing religious practices.
• India adopted this principle and embedded it in its Constitution, granting citizens the right to religious freedom.
• These rights are rooted in the values of tolerance and equality, giving every individual the liberty to follow, practice, and share their faith. This ensures that the Indian state remains religion-neutral.
• However, Indian secularism extends beyond religion—it also embraces linguistic diversity. Unlike Western secularism, which is often religion-focused, the Indian version neither promotes nor opposes any religion or language.
• Rather, it takes a balanced stance, enshrined in the Constitution as a directive principle. This enables the state to actively counter both religious and linguistic communalism, reinforcing India’s commitment to pluralism

 

3. Official and National Language

• This is precisely why India neither has nor can have a single national language. To preserve its rich linguistic heritage, the Constitution's Eighth Schedule recognizes 22 official languages.
• As a Union of States functioning under a unitary federal structure, Article 343 declares Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.
• However, individual states are granted the autonomy to adopt their own official languages. This system reflects India's cultural unity, ensuring that no state asserts separation based on linguistic or cultural identity.
• Additionally, Article 29 guarantees that any group of Indian citizens, including minorities, has the right to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture. It also protects against discrimination on the basis of language.
• As per the 2011 Census, India is home to 121 languages and 270 mother tongues. Roughly 96.71% of the population speaks one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule as their mother tongue.
• The Census further categorizes these 121 languages into two groups: those recognized in the Eighth Schedule and 99 others that are not

 

4. Diversity in India

 

 

• India’s rich linguistic diversity must be safeguarded, and every language—regardless of its regional or state origins—deserves equal respect. This inclusive approach is essential to uphold the country’s principle of linguistic secularism.
• Several states, particularly in the south and northeast, have opposed the promotion of Hindi, expressing concerns over cultural domination. In Tamil Nadu, Dravidian movements have historically resisted Hindi imposition, promoting the use of Tamil and English instead.
• Meanwhile, Maharashtra has become particularly sensitive in the ongoing language discourse. Recent incidents of violence targeting non-Marathi speakers reflect the rise of identity politics.
• However, such acts cannot be justified as efforts to preserve cultural heritage. If cultural preservation were truly the goal, advocates of the Marathi language would embrace the values of tolerance and openness—core elements of India’s strength in diversity.
• India’s long-standing tradition of embracing multiple religions, beliefs, ways of living, and dietary practices stems from its fundamentally tolerant and open-minded nature. In today’s globalized era, any rigid or exclusionary stance toward religion or language can threaten social harmony and undermine the nation’s secular character.
• It is the responsibility of political parties to safeguard India’s pluralism, a diversity that the Constitution has carefully protected

 

5. Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution

 

 

• The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with the official languages recognized by the Indian government. It was originally included to promote the progress and preservation of languages that form an essential part of India’s cultural and linguistic heritage.
• When the Constitution came into effect in 1950, the Eighth Schedule listed 14 languages. Over time, recognizing the linguistic diversity of India and the demands from various linguistic communities, the list was expanded through constitutional amendments.
• As of now, 22 languages are included in the Eighth Schedule. These languages are not just symbolic representations; they receive official recognition and support from the government for development, preservation, and use in education, administration, and communication.
• The inclusion of a language in the Eighth Schedule means that it can be used in official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary matters, and communications between the Union and the states. It also means that the government has an obligation to promote and develop these languages, ensuring they are preserved for future generations.
• However, it is important to understand that the Eighth Schedule does not imply that these are the only languages spoken in India.
• According to the Census of 2011, India has over 121 languages and more than 270 mother tongues, reflecting a deeply multilingual society. The Schedule simply provides a framework for official recognition and support.
• In a country as diverse as India, the Eighth Schedule plays a crucial role in maintaining linguistic harmony. It helps ensure that no major language group feels excluded from national identity or official processes. At the same time, it acknowledges the need for unity by balancing multiple linguistic identities within the broader Indian identity

 

6. Classical Languages in India

• In India, the term "Classical Languages" refers to a special category of languages that are recognized for their ancient origins, rich literary heritage, and historical significance. These languages are not just old, but they have made a lasting impact on the cultural and intellectual traditions of India over centuries.
• The idea of designating certain Indian languages as "Classical" emerged in the early 2000s, with the intention of honouring languages that have a long history and a vast body of ancient literature.
• The Indian government laid down specific criteria to determine whether a language qualifies for classical status. These include antiquity (meaning the language must have existed for at least 1500–2000 years), a rich body of ancient texts, and a literary tradition that is distinct from modern forms of the language.
• The first language to be granted classical status was Tamil, in 2004. Tamil is not only one of the oldest living languages in the world, but it also has an unbroken literary tradition going back over two millennia.
• After Tamil, five more languages were recognised as classical: Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia. Each of these languages has a vast collection of ancient texts, from poetry and drama to philosophy and science, reflecting the intellectual achievements of past civilizations.
• Classical language status comes with certain benefits. The government provides financial support for research and promotion of these languages, including the setting up of centers for their study, scholarships for students, and awards for scholars who contribute to the field. These measures are meant to preserve and revitalize classical traditions that are often at risk of being forgotten.
• It is important to note that a classical language is not necessarily a language spoken widely today in its original form. For example, Sanskrit, though foundational to many Indian languages and still used in religious and scholarly contexts, is not a widely spoken mother tongue. Yet its influence on Indian thought, literature, and spirituality is immense

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Official Language, Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution, Sustainable Development Goals, University Grants Commission, Kothari Commission, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the key provisions and objectives of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. How does it aim to transform the Indian education system, and what are its implications for inclusive development? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2018) 1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the State Council of Teacher Education concerned. 2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines. 3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2         (b) 2 only            (c) 1 and 3            (d) 3 only Answer: B   2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome'. 2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only       B. 2 only          C.  Both 1 and 2            D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   3. The objective(s) of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan is/are: (UKSSSC Forest Guard 2021)  A. To provide quality based education to all children from 14 to 18 years B. Universal standstill till the year 2020 C. To provide residential school for the students of remote areas D. All of the above   Answer: D

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

 

SICKLE CELL DISEASE

1. Context

Recently, The UK drug regulator approved a gene therapy for the cure of sickle cell disease and thalassaemia, seen as a landmark breakthrough by many. This is the first licensed therapy in the world based on the gene editing technology CrisprCas9 earned its innovators a Nobel Prize in 2020.

2. What are Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia?

Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the shape and function of red blood cells. Red blood cells are normally round and flexible, but in people with sickle cell disease, they become sickle-shaped or C-shaped. These sickle-shaped cells can get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow and causing pain, fatigue, and other serious health problems.

Symptoms of sickle cell disease can include:

• Painful episodes, called crises, that can last for days or even weeks
• Fatigue
• Shortness of breath
• Dizziness
• Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
• Swelling of the hands and feet
• Anemia (a lack of red blood cells)
• Frequent infections

Types of Sickle Cell Disease

There are several different types of sickle cell disease, depending on the specific mutations in the haemoglobin gene. The most common type is sickle cell anaemia (HbSS), which occurs when a person inherits two copies of the gene mutation from each parent. Other types of sickle cell disease include sickle cell-beta thalassemia (HbSB), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a beta-thalassemia gene mutation, and sickle cell-C disease (HbSC), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a haemoglobin C gene mutation.

Causes of Sickle Cell Disease

Sickle cell disease is caused by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The mutation causes the haemoglobin to be misshapen, which makes the red blood cells sickle-shaped.

2.1. Thalassaemia

Thalassaemia is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the production of haemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. People with thalassaemia have less haemoglobin than normal, which can lead to anaemia and other health problems.

Types of Thalassaemia

There are two main types of thalassaemia:

• Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha globin chain of haemoglobin.
• Beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta globin chain of haemoglobin.

Symptoms of Thalassaemia

The severity of thalassaemia symptoms depends on the type of thalassaemia and the severity of the mutation. Symptoms of thalassaemia can include:

• Fatigue
• Pale skin
• Shortness of breath
• Dizziness
• Slow growth
• Enlarged spleen

Causes of Thalassaemia

Thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is made up of two globin chains, alpha and beta. Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha-globin chain, while beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta-globin chain.

3. How Does the Therapy Work?

• Both sickle cell disease and thalassaemia are caused by errors in the gene for haemoglobin, a protein in the red blood cells that carry oxygen to organs and tissues.
• The therapy uses the patient’s own blood stem cells, which are precisely edited using Crispr-Cas9.
• A gene called BCL11A, which is crucial for switching from foetal to adult haemoglobin, is targeted by the therapy.
• Foetal haemoglobin, which is naturally present in everyone at birth, does not carry the same abnormalities as adult haemoglobin.
• The therapy uses the body’s own mechanisms to start producing more of this foetal haemoglobin, alleviating the symptoms of the two conditions.

 3.1. Trial Results

• Sickle cell disease: 45 people received Casgevy. Only 29 of these patients had been in the trial long enough for the interim analysis on which the approval is based.
• All but one of these 29 trial participants had no severe pain crises for at least 12 months after treatment.
• Thalassaemia: The therapy has been administered to 54 persons with thalassaemia for the trial. Of them, 42 were in the trial long enough for the interim analysis. 3
• 9 of the 42 patients did not need a transfusion for at least 12 months after the treatment. The need for transfusion dropped by 70% in the other three.

4. Treatment Preparation and challenges

• Casgevy is a one-time treatment for which the doctor has to first collect blood stem cells from the bone marrow using a process called apheresis used to filter out the blood for different components.
• The cells are then sent to the manufacturing site where it takes about six months for them to be edited and tested.
• Before a transplant with the edited cells, the doctor gives a conditioning medicine for a few days to clear the bone marrow of other cells that will be replaced by the modified cells.
• The patient has to stay in the hospital for at least a month so that the edited cells take up residence in the bone marrow and start making red blood cells with normal haemoglobin.
• Side effects from the treatment are similar to those associated with autologous stem cell transplants, including nausea, fatigue, fever and increased risk of infection.
• While the therapy shows tremendous potential, the cost remains a significant challenge, with estimates suggesting it could be as high as $2 million per patient. 
• This poses accessibility issues, especially for individuals in poorer countries.
• However, experts believe that with more research and development, prices may decrease, and local manufacturing facilities can enhance affordability.

An estimated 30,000-40,000 children in India are born with sickle cell disease every year. India also has the largest number of children with thalassaemia major in the world about 1-1.5 lakh. Dr Chakraborty’s team is also working on gene therapy for sickle cell disease with the government’s big push. The team is currently working on the pre-clinical studies and are likely to enter clinical trial in the next few years.

5. Conclusion

Casgevy's approval marks a significant milestone in Crispr-based therapy. While challenges exist, including pricing and accessibility, ongoing research and potential reductions in costs indicate a promising future for gene therapies. The working gene therapy for sickle cell disease with upcoming clinical trials in the pipeline.

For Prelims: Sickle Cell Disease, thalassaemia, CrisprCas9, Noble Prize, red blood cells,  For Mains:  1. Critically analyze the challenges associated with gene therapy, including cost and accessibility, and discuss potential solutions. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only       B. 2 and 3 only          C. 1 and 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3     2. Sick cell anemia (Sickle cell anemia) is caused by? (UPSSSC Chakbandi Lekhpal 2019) A. Deficiency of folic acid B. Abnormal levels of hemoglobin C. Deficiency of iron D. Decreased production of red blood cells (RBCs)     3. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC 2019) A. A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing B. A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients C. A gene that makes plants pest-resistant D. A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops     4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2018) Terms Sometimes seen in news                 Context/Topic 1. Bell II experiment                                  Artificial 2. Blockchain                                             Digital/Cryptocurrency 3. CRISPR - Cas9                                      Particle Physics Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? A. 1 and 3 only            B.  2 only             C. 2 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3     5. Einstein got the Nobel Prize for (BPSC 64TH CCE 2018)  A. relativity      B.  Bose-Einstein condensation C. mass-energy equivalence D. photoelectric effect E. None of the above/More than one of the above   6. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Max Planck       (b) Albert Einstein          (c) William Henry Bragg         (d) Enrico Fermi   7. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Metallurgy         (b) Meteorology            (c) Environmental protection           (d) Genetics   8. Nobel Prize for Economics was instituted in the year _______ (Punjab Patwari 2016) A. 1984        B. 1962           C. 1948          D. 1968   9. Red blood cells (RBCs) have (NDA  2017)  A. no nucleus, no mitochondria, and no endoplasmic reticulum B. nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum C. nucleus, mitochondria but no endoplasmic reticulum D. no mitochondria but endoplasmic reticulum is present     10. Which one of the following statements about blood elements is correct? (UPSC CAPF  2018) A. Red blood cells number is same as that of white blood cells and platelets. B. The number of white blood cells is more than red blood cells. C. The number of red blood cells is the highest. D. The number of red blood cells is lower than platelets.   Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-B, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-D, 9-A, 10-C   Mains 1. What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? (UPSC 2021) 2. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (UPSC 2021)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

COMPETITION COMMISSION OF INDIA

 

 

1. Context

The Competition Commission of India has approved the acquisition of the Target Business from SGRE and SGREL by PPPL, TPG REGen, Mavco, Tikri and SGRE.

 

2. Competition Commission of India

• The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a regulatory authority established in India to promote and protect fair competition in the marketplace.
• It was established under the Competition Act, 2002, and became fully functional in 2009.
• The primary objective of the CCI is to prevent anti-competitive practices, ensure a level playing field for businesses, and promote consumer welfare
• The Competition Commission of India (within the Ministry of Corporate Affairs) has been established to enforce the competition law under the Competition Act, 2002.
• It should be noted that on the recommendations of Raghavan committee, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act) was repealed and replaced by the Competition Act, 2002
• The Commission consists of a Chairperson and not more than 6 Members appointed by the Central Government
• It is the statutory duty of the Commission to eliminate practices having an adverse effect on competition, promote and sustain competition, protect the interests of consumers and ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants, in markets in India as provided in the Preamble as well as Section 18 of the Act.
• The Commission is also mandated to give its opinion on competition issues to government or statutory authority and to undertake competition advocacy for creating awareness of competition law.
• Advocacy is at the core of effective competition regulation. Competition Commission of India (CCI), which has been entrusted with implementation of law, has always believed in complementing robust enforcement with facilitative advocacy. It is a quasi-judicial body.

 

3. Key functions and responsibilities 

Here are some key functions and responsibilities of the Competition Commission of India:

1. Competition Advocacy: The CCI engages in advocacy and education activities to promote competition awareness among businesses, government agencies, and the public.

2. Antitrust Enforcement: The CCI investigates and takes action against anti-competitive agreements, abuse of dominance by companies, and anti-competitive mergers and acquisitions. It can impose penalties and remedies on entities found to be in violation of competition laws.

3. Merger Control: The CCI reviews and approves or disapproves mergers, acquisitions, and combinations that may have an adverse impact on competition in the Indian market. It assesses whether these transactions are likely to cause a substantial lessening of competition.

4. Market Studies and Research: The CCI conducts studies and research to understand market dynamics, competition issues, and emerging trends. This information helps in formulating policies and recommendations to improve competition.

5. Competition Advocacy: The commission engages in advocacy efforts to promote competition principles and practices among businesses, government agencies, and the public.

6. Consumer Protection: While primarily focused on promoting competition, the CCI also indirectly promotes consumer welfare by ensuring that markets remain competitive and that consumers have choices and access to fair prices.

7. Regulation of Anti-Competitive Practices: The CCI addresses practices such as price-fixing, bid rigging, and abuse of market power that can harm competition and consumers.

8. Legal Proceedings: The CCI has the authority to conduct investigations, hold hearings, and pass orders. Its decisions can be appealed to higher courts in India.

4. What is the Competition Act?

 

• The Competition Act, 2002, as amended by the Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007, follows the philosophy of modern competition laws.
• The Act prohibits anti-competitive agreements, and abuse of dominant position by enterprises and regulates combinations (acquisition, acquiring of control and M&A), which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India
• In accordance with the provisions of the Amendment Act, the Competition Commission of India and the Competition Appellate Tribunal have been established
• The government of India replaced Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT) with the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in 2017
• The provisions of the Competition Act relating to anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominant position were notified on May 20, 2009

Competition is the best means of ensuring that the ‘Common Man’ or ‘Aam Aadmi’ has access to the broadest range of goods and services at the most competitive prices. With increased competition, producers will have maximum incentive to innovate and specialize. This would result in reduced costs and wider choice to consumers. A fair competition in market is essential to achieve this objective. Our goal is to create and sustain fair competition in the economy that will provide a ‘level playing field’ to the producers and make the markets work for the welfare of the consumers

 

5. What is Cartelisation?

Cartels can be difficult to define. According to CCI, a “Cartel includes an association of producers, sellers, distributors, traders or service providers who, by agreement amongst themselves, limit, control or attempt to control the production, distribution, sale or price of, or, trade in goods or provision of services”

The International Competition Network, which is a global body dedicated to enforcing competition law, has a simpler definition. The three common components of a cartel are:

• an agreement;
• between competitors;
• to restrict competition.

6. Way forward

CCI needs to revisit its definition of ‘relevant market’. In the age of digital world, defining relevant market has been a tough task for regulators world-wide. Technological developments like Web 3.0, AI, IoT, Blockchain and issues like data protection and privacy, search bias, platform neutrality, confidentiality, etc, have created a need for a robust competition law. Such a law should meet the demands of the technological era we live in.

 

 

For Prelims: Statutory board, Constitutional body For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and functions of the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in promoting and ensuring fair competition in the Indian market 2.Examine the challenges and limitations faced by the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in effectively regulating and promoting competition in the digital economy

 

Previous year Questions  1. Competition Commission of India is which kind of body? (RSMSSB Sanganak 2018) A. Statutory body B. Constitutional. C. Single Member D. Private Answer (A)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

PERIODIC LABOUR FORCE SURVEY (PLFS)

 

 

1. Context

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) in Current Weekly Status (CWS) among persons of age 15 years and above was 54.2 % during June 2025 as compared to 54.8% during May, 2025. LFPR in rural areas was 56.1% and LFPR in urban areas was 50.4% during June, 2025 for persons of the same age group.

2. About The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is a sample survey conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) of India to provide information on the labour force and employment situation in the country.
• The survey is conducted annually in all the states and union territories of India.
• The PLFS provides data on various employment indicators, including the labour force participation rate (LFPR), unemployment rate (UR), worker population ratio (WPR), and employment by industry and occupation.
• The PLFS sheds light on the proportion of individuals seeking employment, the unemployment rate, gender disparities in employment and wages, and the sectoral distribution of workers.
• Additionally, it details the types of employment, such as casual labour, self-employment, and regular salaried jobs.
• This comprehensive data is crucial for understanding the dynamics of the Indian labour market and formulating effective employment strategies.

 

3. Data Collection Methods in PLFS

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) collects employment data using two methods: Usual Status (US) and Current Weekly Status (CWS).
• In the US method, respondents are asked to recall their employment details for the past year, while in the CWS method, they are asked to recall their employment details for the past week.
• The labour force estimate derived from the US method includes individuals who worked or were seeking/available for work for a significant portion of the past year, as well as those who worked for at least 30 days during the reference period.
• Conversely, the labour force estimate based on the CWS method encompasses those who worked for at least one hour or sought/were available for work for at least one hour on any day during the past week.
• The global trend has shifted towards a greater emphasis on CWS data due to the improved accuracy of recall for shorter reference periods. 

4. Latest findings of the Report

Unemployment Rate (UER)

• The UER is often the most talked about metric in popular discourse. Simply put, it refers to the proportion of people who demanded work over the past year and failed to get it.
• As the data in Table 1 shows, for the population above 15 years of age, the UER has fallen significantly from 6.6% to 5.1% over the last year (that is, July to June cycle).
• Simply put, 5.1% of all the people above 15 years of age who demanded work failed to get one. 

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

• The Unemployment Rate (UER) is calculated as a proportion of the population that is demanding work.
• However, this population also fluctuates for various reasons. The Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is a measure of the total population demanding work, expressed as a proportion of the total population above 15 years of age.
• As seen in Table 1, India's LFPR, which had been gradually increasing, has experienced a significant surge in the past year.
• As of 2022-23, 54.6% of all Indians above the age of 15 were actively seeking employment.

 

LFPR for women

• This metric looks at LFPR among women to ascertain where the additional demand for jobs is coming from.
• The data shows that female LFPR has gone up over the years but there were two discrete step-ups one in 2019-20 (when India’s GDP growth rate had slowed down to less than 4% and this was before the Covid pandemic hit) and the second in 2022-23 when it rose to 31.6%.

Worker Population Rate

• Since the proportion of people demanding work (the LFPR) goes up and down and the percentage of those failing to get a job (the UER) is expressed as a proportion of the former, it can throw off analysis.
• As such, there is another way to look at the labour market: Worker Population Ratio (WPR).
• The WPR is the percentage of persons employed among the persons in the population.
• Thus, instead of looking at how many demand a job and how many fail to get it, the WPR simply gives a measure of how many people have a job as a proportion of the total population.
• This metric too has been going up and especially noteworthy are the two discrete
  step-ups in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

WPR among women

This metric throws light on the WPR for women to understand what’s leading to the spike in overall WPR. Again, the WPR for women has been going up but two main spikes have been in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

Monthly earnings

The PLFS reports also provide a sense of how much people earn in different types of jobs.

While it is true that incomes have broadly gone up after falling during Covid the main takeaway from this data emerges when one compares how little have monthly incomes changed over the past 6 years, especially in the face of a sharp rise in inflation. To be sure, since late 2019, annual consumer inflation has always been above the RBI’s target of 4%.

 

Distribution of workers

To accurately make sense of more and more people working, it is important to know not just what they earn but also what kind of work they do. For this, we look at data collected over the usual status by PLFS. Table 3 alongside gives the details of the three main classifications: self-employment, casual labour (say a construction worker) and regular salaried job. Self-employed has two sub-categories:

(i) own account worker and employer and

(ii) unpaid helper in household enterprises. 

 

The data shows that self-employment has risen and jobs in the other two categories have fallen in proportion. It is also noteworthy that self-employment among women is the key driver for this overall trend. 

 

5. Key Trends in PLFS 2022-23

• Upon initial analysis, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for 2022-23 reveals several encouraging trends. The unemployment rate is on a downward trajectory, and both the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and Workforce Participation Rate (WPR) exhibit substantial increases. A particularly heartening development is the notable rise in the participation of women in the workforce. This suggests a positive correlation between economic recovery and the creation of more employment opportunities, especially for women.
• However, a closer examination of the nature and remuneration of these new jobs alters the understanding. The predominant trend is the emergence of jobs falling under the category of "self-employment." Typically, in a growing economy, businesses tend to hire more employees. Conversely, during economic challenges, individuals often transition from regular employment to "self-employed" status. This nuanced perspective prompts a reconsideration of the quality and sustainability of the employment being generated.
• Analyzing the trends among women across various metrics reveals an interesting dynamic. The data suggests that economic strains on household finances have led more women, previously outside the workforce, to join in. However, a noteworthy observation is the prevalence of women taking up roles as "unpaid helpers in household enterprises," highlighting a complex interplay between economic conditions and women's workforce participation.
• Furthermore, an examination of the sectoral landscape indicates a regressive shift in India's employment patterns. Notably, there has been an increase in the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture over the past year, while the numbers in manufacturing have witnessed a decline. This shift underscores the evolving economic dynamics and sectoral preferences shaping the employment scenario.
• In a thriving economy, one would expect an improvement in monthly incomes. However, the Indian scenario deviates from this expectation. Despite positive indicators in other areas, the data suggests that the overall economic boom is not translating into significant improvements in monthly incomes for individuals in India. This anomaly prompts a closer examination of the factors contributing to this divergence.

6. The WayForward

While there are positive signals in the headline indicators, a more nuanced analysis reveals complexities like job creation, women's participation dynamics, sectoral shifts, and income patterns. This holistic perspective is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impact of economic trends on the labour market in India.

 

For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio For Mains: 1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: Codes: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true     2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020) 1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low   4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false. B. (A) is false, but (R) is true. C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A). D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A). Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Indian Express