• Major Indian commercial vehicle manufacturers like Tata Motors, Volvo Eicher, and Ashok Leyland are intensifying their efforts in developing hydrogen-powered trucks and buses. They are investing heavily in research and development while expanding manufacturing capacities.
• Simultaneously, Indian energy companies are striving to scale up green hydrogen production and drive down costs to enhance their competitiveness against other fuels.
• Hydrogen is poised to become a cornerstone in the transportation sector shortly. With India being a substantial and growing market for both vehicles and energy, the widespread adoption of green hydrogen as a vehicular fuel holds immense potential for the country.
• The utilization of green hydrogen offers substantial emissions reductions, crucial for combating global warming and climate change. India sees various benefits, including pollution mitigation, achieving climate targets, reducing dependency on costly fossil fuel imports, and seizing the opportunity to establish itself as a global hub for green hydrogen production and export.

4. MNRE Scheme for the Transportation Sector

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched a pilot project scheme in February to assess the viability of green hydrogen as a transportation fuel.

The scheme focuses on three key objectives

1. Technical Feasibility and Performance: Validate the technical capabilities and performance of green hydrogen when used as a fuel for vehicles.
2. Economic Viability: Evaluate the economic feasibility of green hydrogen-powered vehicles, including factors like costs and potential returns.
3. Safe Operation Demonstration: Showcase the safe operation of both hydrogen-powered vehicles and the associated refuelling stations.

The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways will appoint a dedicated agency to manage the scheme. This agency will then invite proposals for pilot projects. Following a selection process, the chosen company or consortium will become the executing agency responsible for carrying out the project.

Funding for these pilot projects will come in the form of viability gap funding (VGF) approved by the MNRE based on the recommendations of a Project Appraisal Committee. The VGF amount will be determined on a project-by-project basis, considering factors like specific needs, merits, and overall feasibility. The executing agency will have two years to complete the pilot project.

A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle operates similarly to traditional cars powered by diesel or petrol, but with a key difference: there are no carbon emissions produced during combustion.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen electrochemically by converting it into electricity through a fuel cell. This process involves storing hydrogen in a high-pressure tank and generating electricity, with water being the only byproduct. While hydrogen ICE vehicles don't emit carbon, research suggests that burning hydrogen is less energy-efficient compared to converting it into electricity in a fuel cell.

Advantages of Hydrogen FCEVs Over Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

Compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where the battery constitutes the heaviest part of the vehicle, hydrogen FCEVs are typically lighter. This is because hydrogen is a lighter element, and a fuel cell stack weighs less than an electric vehicle (EV) battery. This feature makes hydrogen fuel cell technology a promising alternative to EV battery technology, particularly for heavy-duty trucks that can benefit from increased payload capacity without emitting smoke from burning diesel.

The Promise of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology

Research indicates that long-haul FCEVs can carry freight amounts comparable to diesel trucks, whereas long-haul BEVs face a weight penalty of up to 25% due to heavier batteries. Given the imperative to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector while maintaining revenue-generating payload capacity, green hydrogen emerges as a promising solution.

6. Challenges Facing the Adoption of Green Hydrogen in Transportation

The widespread adoption of green hydrogen in the transportation sector encounters several significant challenges

• The primary obstacle is the high cost of green hydrogen production. Additionally, challenges related to storage and transportation at scale further compound the issue. However, ongoing technological innovation and increased production scaling are expected to drive costs down in the coming years.
• Despite advancements, green hydrogen-powered vehicles are not yet perceived as a viable alternative to four-wheel electric vehicles (EVs). Challenges such as fuel costs and the establishment of supporting infrastructure hinder their widespread acceptance. Recent closures of hydrogen refuelling stations in California, despite remaining operational for heavy-duty vehicles, underscore the challenges in this regard.
• For hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) to compete effectively with battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the cost of green hydrogen needs to range between $3 and $6.5 per kilogram by 2030. However, current retail prices in California are substantially higher, and the cost of building hydrogen refuelling stations for trucks is significantly greater than that of BEV stations.
• Specialized cylinders capable of storing green hydrogen pose another challenge. Existing cylinders designed for compressed natural gas (CNG) are unsuitable due to the higher pressure requirements of hydrogen. Developing high-pressure hydrogen cylinders with sufficient strength, typically using carbon fibre, incurs high costs, hampering hydrogen's adoption as a transport fuel.
• Hydrogen's flammability necessitates stringent safety measures compared to conventional fuels like diesel, petrol, or even CNG. Robust handling and safety standards are imperative before large-scale adoption can be pursued.
• Advancements in battery technologies, resulting in lighter EV batteries, may pose a long-term challenge to the viability of green hydrogen-powered heavy-duty commercial vehicles. As battery weight decreases, the attractiveness of hydrogen-powered vehicles may diminish.

NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY

• Established in 1968 and coming into effect in 1970, this global agreement was designed to curb the spread of nuclear arms and technologies, encourage collaboration on the peaceful application of nuclear energy, and advance nuclear disarmament.
• After World War II concluded in 1945 with the U.S. detonating atomic bombs over Japan, major powers began developing nuclear arsenals, even as parallel initiatives sought to control the dissemination of nuclear know-how.
• One such effort emerged in 1953 with the U.S. launching the Atoms for Peace program under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. This initiative paved the way for the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
• In a landmark address, Eisenhower emphasized that America’s goal went beyond merely limiting nuclear weapons. He advocated for repurposing atomic energy for constructive, peaceful purposes, rather than just eliminating its military applications.
• In a 1981 article, international affairs scholar Joseph Nye highlighted that the initiative’s most impactful legacy was the establishment of a safeguards regime. This system required non-nuclear-armed states to submit detailed reports on their civilian nuclear programs and allowed for international inspections to verify that nuclear material was not diverted for weaponization.
• According to the treaty, nuclear-weapon states are defined as those that had detonated a nuclear device before January 1, 1967—specifically the U.S., U.K., France, the Soviet Union (now Russia), and China.
• Currently, 191 countries are parties to the treaty. India, which conducted its first nuclear test in 1974, has not signed it and instead emphasizes the need for universal and non-discriminatory approaches to nuclear non-proliferation.
• Critics argue that the treaty is biased in favor of the five permanent UN Security Council members, given the arbitrary cut-off date that grants them nuclear status.
• Pakistan has also declined to join the treaty. Israel, though widely believed to possess nuclear arms, has neither confirmed this nor become a signatory. North Korea joined in 1985 but withdrew in 2003 after revelations about its uranium enrichment program and the subsequent expulsion of IAEA inspectors

 

3. What happens if Iran leaves the NPT?

 

 

• Among the 11 provisions of the treaty, one outlines the process for a country to exit. Article 10 specifically allows for withdrawal, stating that any member, while exercising its sovereign rights, may leave the treaty if it determines that extraordinary circumstances related to the treaty’s subject matter have endangered its core national interests.
• The withdrawing nation must give three months' advance notice to all treaty parties and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), including an explanation of the exceptional events prompting its decision.
• Iran became a party to the treaty in 1970, almost a decade before it transitioned into a theocratic state following the Islamic Revolution. Recently, for the first time in nearly two decades, the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 35-member Board of Governors—which includes countries like the P5, India, Japan, Ukraine, and Bangladesh—accused Iran of violating its non-proliferation commitments.
• The resolution passed by the board pointed to Iran’s repeated failure since 2019 to provide adequate and timely cooperation with the IAEA, particularly regarding nuclear materials and activities at undeclared sites. Iran, however, insisted that it has consistently fulfilled its safeguards obligations.
• Leaving the treaty presents two major risks: first, Iran would no longer be subject to the IAEA’s routine inspections and oversight; second, its exit could embolden other nations to abandon the treaty as well, undermining global efforts to control nuclear proliferation.
• According to Bloomberg’s analysis of IAEA data, agency inspectors visited Iranian nuclear sites at a rate of 1.4 times per day on average last year—an access level that would cease if Iran withdrew.
• Nonetheless, staying within the NPT does not automatically indicate a country has no interest in developing nuclear arms, as cases like North Korea have shown. Although Iranian leaders have repeatedly stated they do not intend to pursue nuclear weapons, shifting geopolitical realities in the Middle East leave room for uncertainty.
• Despite its limitations, scholars such as Joseph Nye argue that the treaty has played a valuable role in at least slowing the global spread of nuclear weapons

 

4. International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA)

 

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an independent international organization that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and works to prevent its use for military purposes, including nuclear weapons. Established in 1957, the IAEA operates under the umbrella of the United Nations but has its own statute and governing structure.

The IAEA plays a critical role in enforcing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) by monitoring compliance through regular inspections, especially in non-nuclear-weapon states that agree to open their civilian nuclear programs to scrutiny.

The IAEA is governed by a Board of Governors (35 member states) and a General Conference, and its reports are influential in shaping global nuclear policy

Notable contributions:

• Verification missions in Iran, North Korea, and Iraq.

• Coordination of global nuclear safety after incidents like Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011).

• Promotion of nuclear medicine and radiation therapies in developing countries.

 

5.Why India never signed NPT?

 

 

India has never signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) primarily because it considers the treaty discriminatory and unfair. Here’s a detailed explanation of India’s position:

 

• The NPT recognizes only five countries as nuclear-weapon states (the U.S., Russia, China, the U.K., and France) — those that tested nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967.

• India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 (Smiling Buddha) and was thus excluded from this group.

• This arbitrary cut-off date effectively created two classes of states: nuclear "haves" and "have-nots." India argues that this undermines the principle of equality in international law

• While the NPT obliges non-nuclear weapon states to not acquire nuclear weapons, it only vaguely commits the nuclear powers to pursue disarmament.

• India criticizes the treaty for lacking a concrete timeline for global nuclear disarmament, making it imbalanced.

• India sees possession of nuclear weapons as essential for strategic autonomy and national security, especially given its geopolitical environment (with nuclear-armed neighbors like China and Pakistan).

• Signing the NPT as a non-nuclear state would have required India to give up its nuclear weapons capability, which it sees as unacceptable for its national security

• In 2008, India secured a civil nuclear deal with the U.S. and a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), despite not signing the NPT.

• This demonstrated growing global acceptance of India's nuclear status and its responsible record on non-proliferation

 

 

For Prelims: Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)   For Mains: GS II - Non Proliferation treaty

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

INTERNATIONAL BIG CAT ALLIANCE(IBCA)

 

 

1. Context

 

The first Assembly of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) was held in New Delhi on Monday (June 16), presided over by the Union Minister for Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Bhupender Yadav.

 

2. International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)

 

• In March 2024, the Indian government, through the National Tiger Conservation Authority under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, launched the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA). The alliance is focused on conserving seven major big cat species: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma.
• The initiative seeks to promote cooperation and coordination among various stakeholders, aiming to pool successful conservation strategies and apply them across the countries where these species are naturally found. For this initiative, the central government has earmarked ₹150 crore for the period from 2023–24 to 2027–28.
• There are 95 range countries—nations that lie within the natural habitats of at least one of the big cats. These include countries such as Canada, China, Brazil, Congo, Ghana, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, and the United States. By September 2024, 25 nations had agreed to become part of the IBCA, including Bangladesh, Nigeria, Kenya, Egypt, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, and Rwanda.
• Membership is open to all United Nations member states, provided they sign the framework agreement and notify their participation through a diplomatic Note Verbale, a formal method of communication used in international relations

 

3. What was the rationale behind this move?

 

• In 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi introduced the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) during an event in Mysuru, marking 50 years since the launch of Project Tiger. This original conservation program was initiated in response to the alarming decline in India’s tiger population.
• Although there were an estimated 40,000 tigers in the country at the time of Independence, their numbers had dropped drastically to about 1,800 by 1970, largely due to extensive poaching and hunting.
• The decline of top predators like tigers has a cascading effect on ecosystems. According to an IBCA report, these big cats play a vital role in keeping prey populations in check, which helps maintain ecological balance and prevents overgrazing—a factor that can trigger wildfires, disease outbreaks, and other environmental threats.
• Safeguarding big cats also means protecting their habitats, which are often biodiversity hotspots. As a result, big cat conservation has far-reaching benefits such as reducing disaster risks, preserving soil quality, limiting the spread of infectious diseases, enhancing climate resilience, and aiding in climate change mitigation by capturing and storing carbon.
• Project Tiger played a foundational role in establishing dedicated tiger reserves across India. It began with nine protected areas in states such as Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Notable among these were the Kanha Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh, Jim Corbett in Uttarakhand, and Bandipur in Karnataka

 

4.What are Big Cats?

 

According to the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), "Big Cats" refer to a group of seven principal species:

• Tiger (Panthera tigris)

• Lion (Panthera leo)

• Leopard (Panthera pardus)

• Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)

• Jaguar (Panthera onca)

• Puma (Puma concolor, also known as cougar or mountain lion)

• Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

 

5. Conservative initiatives by India

 

a) Project Tiger (1973)

• Launched to halt the declining tiger population.

• Led to the creation of 53 Tiger Reserves under the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

• Introduced measures like core-buffer strategy, strict anti-poaching protocols, and use of technology for monitoring (e.g., M-STrIPES, camera traps).

b) Project Lion

• Aims to ensure the long-term conservation of Asiatic Lions, found only in the Gir Forest of Gujarat.

• Focuses on expanding lion habitats beyond Gir, improving prey base, and reducing human-animal conflict.

c) Project Snow Leopard (2009)

• Focuses on community-based conservation in the high-altitude Himalayan region.

• Covers Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir/Ladakh.

• Includes habitat protection and integrating local livelihoods with conservation goals.

d) Cheetah Reintroduction Project (2022)

• Aims to reintroduce the cheetah, extinct in India since 1952.

• African cheetahs brought to Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh, under a long-term plan to establish a free-ranging population.

• Emphasizes adaptive management and intercontinental collaboration.

 

 

For Prelims: Kuno National Park, Project Tiger, National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) For Mains: GS III - Conservation

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

IRAN-ISRAEL

 

 

1. Context

 

In a dramatic escalation of tensions, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has issued a stark warning to the United States against any military intervention, declaring that Tehran will not surrender. This comes as Israel claims to have successfully struck over 40 military sites across Iran, marking a significant intensification of direct confrontations between the two regional rivals. The world watches with bated breath as the conflict veers towards an unpredictable and potentially catastrophic phase

 

 

2. History of Iran-Israel

 

The history of Iran-Israel relations is complex, marked by periods of cooperation and deep hostility, shaped by political, ideological, and strategic developments.

Early Relations (Pre-1979)

• Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a cordial and strategic relationship under the Pahlavi dynasty, particularly during the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign.
• Iran, under the Shah, recognized Israel in 1948 as one of the first Muslim-majority countries to do so, driven by shared interests against Arab nationalism and the Soviet influence in the region.
• During the Cold War, Iran supplied Israel with oil, and trade flourished, including the operation of the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline, a joint venture. Military cooperation, such as the secretive Project Flower (1977-79) to develop a missile, also occurred.
• This alliance was bolstered by Israel’s support during World War II, when Iran provided refuge to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, a historical bond some trace back 2,500 years to Persian-Jewish ties.

Shift After the 1979 Revolution

• The Iranian Revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, marked a dramatic turning point. The establishment of the Islamic Republic brought an anti-Israel ideology, rooted in opposition to Zionism and support for the Palestinian cause.
• Iran severed diplomatic ties with Israel, nationalized the oil industry, and began supporting groups like Hezbollah and Palestinian factions (e.g., Hamas) as proxies against Israel.
• The 1979 U.S. Embassy hostage crisis and Iran’s vote against Israel’s UN admission in 1949 further solidified this stance. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) saw Israel secretly supplying arms to Iran, a pragmatic move despite the ideological rift, though this did not mend relations.

Escalation into Proxy and Direct Conflict

Since the 1980s, the relationship evolved into a proxy war, with Iran backing militias (e.g., Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthis in Yemen) to encircle Israel, while Israel conducted covert operations against Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence. Key events include:

• 2000s-2010s: Israel’s alleged cyberattacks (e.g., Stuxnet in 2010) and assassinations of Iranian nuclear scientists (e.g., Mohsen Fakhrizadeh in 2020) aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear ambitions, which Israel views as an existential threat. Iran, claiming its program is peaceful, retaliated through proxy attacks.
• 2024: Direct confrontations escalated with Iran launching ballistic missiles at Israel in April and October, following Israeli strikes on Iranian targets in Syria. The killing of Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh in Tehran in July 2024 and Hezbollah’s Fuad Shukr heightened tensions.
• 2025: On June 13, Israel launched a major attack on Iran, targeting nuclear and military sites, killing senior figures like IRGC commander Hossein Salami. Iran retaliated with missile barrages, marking the most intense direct conflict to date, with significant casualties reported on both sides by June 18, 2025

 

3. Latest Updates on the live war

 

 

Khamenei's Warning to the US:

 

Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a stern warning to the United States against any military intervention in Iran. He stated that any US strike would lead to "serious, irreparable consequences" and that Iran would not accept an "imposed war" or "peace," nor would it surrender. This warning came in response to US President Donald Trump's demand for Iran's "unconditional surrender" and his assertion that the US had "complete and total control of the skies over Iran." Khamenei's statements underscore Iran's defiance amidst escalating tensions and military threats

Israel Claims 40 Sites Hit:

 

On the same day, Israel announced that its Air Force fighter jets had completed a wave of strikes against military targets in western Iran. According to an Israeli army post on X, approximately 25 fighter jets attacked more than 40 missile infrastructures aimed at Israel, missile storage sites, and military operatives of the Iranian regime. Earlier reports also indicated that Israel claimed to have bombed at least two nuclear centrifuge production facilities in Iran, including the main nuclear facility in Tehran

 

4. What is India’s stake in and stand on the Iran-Israel conflict?

 

India maintains a neutral stance on the Iran-Israel conflict, prioritizing diplomacy, regional stability, and its strategic interests amid the ongoing escalation. Here’s an overview of India’s stakes and position:

India’s Stakes

India’s economic and strategic interests are significantly tied to both Iran and Israel, making the conflict a critical concern:

• Energy Security: India imports over 80% of its crude oil from West Asia, with Iran historically being a key supplier despite reduced volumes due to U.S. sanctions. The current conflict has spiked oil prices (Brent crude nearing $78 per barrel), threatening inflation and India’s current account deficit. The potential closure of the Strait of Hormuz, through which nearly two-thirds of India’s oil and half its LNG pass, poses a severe risk.
• Trade and Connectivity: Iran’s Chabahar port, developed with a $370 million Indian investment, is vital for trade with Central Asia and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan. The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), involving Iran and Russia, could face disruptions. Trade with Israel ($1.6 billion imports, $2.1 billion exports in 2024-25) and Iranian trade ($1.4 billion exports, $441 million imports) are also at risk.
• Indian Diaspora: Approximately 18,000 Indians in Israel and 10,000 in Iran are vulnerable, prompting evacuation advisories and embassy support.
• Defense and Economy: Israel is a top defense supplier (drones, missile systems), while companies like Sun Pharma and Adani Group have stakes in Israel. A prolonged conflict could disrupt these sectors and raise freight costs, impacting India’s $120 billion merchandise trade with Europe and the U.S.

 

5.  India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

 

 

The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a strategic multi-modal connectivity initiative launched during the G20 Summit in New Delhi on September 9, 2023, through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by India, the United States, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), France, Germany, Italy, and the European Union. It aims to enhance economic development by fostering connectivity and integration between Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe, serving as a counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Structure and Objectives

• Corridors: IMEC comprises two main segments:
  • Eastern Corridor: Connects India to the Arabian Gulf via ports, railways, and roads.
  • Northern Corridor: Links the Gulf to Europe through rail and maritime networks.
• Infrastructure: The project includes railways, ship-to-rail networks, road transport, electricity cables, high-speed data cables, and hydrogen pipelines to facilitate trade, energy, and digital connectivity.
• Goals: It seeks to reduce transit times by 40% and costs by 30% compared to the Suez Canal route, boost trade, enhance supply chain resilience, and promote green energy (e.g., solar power, green hydrogen) and digital integration

 

6. Israel-Hamas conflict 

 

 Israel-Hamas conflict, which escalated significantly following Hamas's attack on October 7, 2023, remains a critical issue in the Middle East, though it has been overshadowed by the recent Iran-Israel conflict that began on June 13, 2025. Here’s an overview based on available information and critical analysis:

 

• Origin: The conflict intensified with Hamas’s surprise assault on October 7, 2023, killing over 1,200 Israelis, mostly civilians, and taking 251 hostages. Israel responded with a declaration of war, launching airstrikes and a ground invasion of Gaza, aiming to dismantle Hamas and free hostages. A brief ceasefire in late January to early March 2025 included hostage exchanges but collapsed after failed negotiations, resuming hostilities in March 2025.
• Current Status: The Gaza war has seen over 54,000 Palestinian deaths and 1,700 Israeli deaths by early June 2025, according to official figures, though these numbers are contested. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) reported killing Hamas leaders like Yahya Sinwar and Mohammed Deif, but U.S. intelligence suggests Hamas has recruited replacements, indicating resilience. The conflict’s focus has shifted somewhat due to Israel’s Operation Rising Lion against Iran, launched on June 12, 2025, targeting Iranian nuclear and military sites, which has drawn international attention away from Gaza.
• Humanitarian Crisis: Nearly 90% of Gaza’s 2.3 million population has been displaced, with acute food insecurity and no functioning hospitals reported. Israeli evacuation orders cover 80% of Gaza, and aid distribution sites have faced deadly incidents, with dozens killed by Israeli fire in recent weeks, as reported by Palestinian health officials. The blockade and destruction of infrastructure have fueled accusations of war crimes from human rights groups

 

7. Way Forward

 

 

The Iran-Israel conflict, now in its sixth day following Israel’s Operation Rising Lion on June 13, 2025, has escalated into direct military confrontation, with devastating airstrikes, significant casualties, and threats to nuclear and energy infrastructure. This escalation has overshadowed the ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict, where Gaza remains a humanitarian crisis zone with over 54,000 Palestinian and 1,700 Israeli deaths since October 7, 2023, and no immediate resolution in sight. The broader regional instability threatens trade routes, energy supplies, and diplomatic relations, drawing in global powers like the U.S., Russia, and China, each with competing interests

 

For Prelims: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)   For Mains: GS II - International relations

 

 

Source: Aljazeera

 

FUEL GAS DESULPHURISATION (FDG)

 

 

1. Context

 

On June 4, The Hindu reported that a committee of experts, chaired by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) Ajay Sood, has recommended that India do away with a decade-long policy of mandating Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in all coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs)

 

2. What is Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)?

 

• Flue gas is produced as a result of burning fossil fuels and contains several harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
• Among these, flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems are specifically designed to remove SO₂ emissions. Since SO₂ is acidic in nature, it is neutralised using a basic substance within the FGD process.
• There are three main types of FGD technologies used globally: dry sorbent injection, wet limestone scrubbing, and seawater-based removal. In the dry sorbent method, a fine powdered material such as limestone is introduced into the flue gas stream, where it chemically reacts with SO₂. The resulting compounds are then extracted using equipment like electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters.
• The wet limestone technique, which is widely adopted due to its high efficiency, uses a slurry of limestone instead of dry powder. When SO₂ comes into contact with this slurry, it forms gypsum—a stable byproduct that has commercial use, particularly in the construction sector.
• For power plants located near coastlines, the seawater method is often employed. In this process, seawater captures the SO₂ from the flue gas. The used water is then treated adequately before being released back into the ocean, ensuring minimal environmental impact

3.Status of FDG units in India

 

• In 2015, the Union Ministry of Environment introduced regulations requiring all 537 coal-based thermal power plants (TPPs) across India to install flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems in order to curb sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions. The initial deadline for compliance was set for 2018.
• However, only a small number of power plants managed to meet this target. By April 2025, the timeline had been extended, with revised deadlines staggered between 2027 and 2029, based on the classification of each TPP. Notably, the installation of an FGD unit typically requires about two years.
• As per a government update released on August 1, 2024, only 39 out of the 537 coal-fired TPPs had completed FGD installation. Subsequently, on December 30, 2024, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) issued another notification, postponing the compliance deadline by an additional three years, but without providing any justification for the delay.
• In April 2025, a report commissioned by the Principal Scientific Adviser’s (PSA) office recommended that the Ministry consider withdrawing the 2015 directive that mandated FGD units across all coal-fired power plants in India

4. Why are SO2 emissions bad?

 

• SO₂ emissions are dangerous due to their role in acid rain formation, air pollution, and public health hazards. That is why technologies like Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) are crucial in reducing SO₂ from industrial sources like power plants
• Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is a significant pollutant that contributes to global warming and poses serious respiratory health risks. In the atmosphere, SO₂ can transform into other sulphur compounds, which may then interact with various chemicals to generate particulate matter.
• Research based on atmospheric modelling indicates that approximately 15% of India’s ambient PM2.5 levels are linked to coal combustion. Of that, around 80% results from secondary particulate matter created by SO₂ emissions from burning coal.
• Therefore, implementing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems is crucial to reducing this major source of PM2.5 pollution

 

5. FDG units are Contentious

 

 

• Installing flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems involves substantial financial investment. According to estimates by the Central Electricity Authority, the installation cost is around ₹1.2 crore per megawatt (MW). As of April 2025, India’s coal-based power generation capacity was 2,19,338 MW—accounting for over 46% of the nation’s total installed power capacity—and this figure is projected to grow.
• At a press briefing on June 10, Union Power Minister Manohar Lal Khattar noted that an additional 97,000 MW of capacity is planned, and incorporating FGD systems for this expansion would require an estimated ₹97,000 crore. He emphasized the need to weigh this carefully, ensuring public health isn't compromised, while also avoiding a sharp rise in electricity tariffs or increased emissions.

 

6. Way forward

 

The issue of installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in India’s thermal power plants lies at the intersection of environmental responsibility, public health, and economic feasibility. While FGDs are essential to control sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions—major contributors to air pollution and PM2.5 formation—implementation has been sluggish due to high installation costs, regulatory delays, and lack of political urgency. With India’s coal power capacity set to expand, the environmental costs of inaction could be significant, undermining the country’s clean air targets and affecting millions of lives.

At the same time, the power sector faces pressure to keep tariffs affordable and ensure energy security. Although installing FGDs will raise electricity costs modestly, experts argue that these represent necessary and predictable investments in public health and environmental sustainability. The way forward requires a balanced approach: one that internalizes the cost of pollution, streamlines implementation timelines, and ensures the power sector does not externalize its environmental burden onto the public

 

For Prelims: Flue Gas Desulphurisation, Pollutants removed by FGD (especially SO₂)   For Mains: GS III - India’s coal-based installed power capacity

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the “New York Declaration on Forests”, which of the following statements are correct? (UPSC CSE 2020) It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests. It is a legally binding international declaration. It is endorsed by governments, companies, and civil society organizations Select the correct answer from the above given   A.1, 2 and 4 B.1, 3 and 5 C.3 and 4 D.2 and 5 Answer (A)   2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2019) Carbon monoxide Methane Ozone Sulphur dioxide Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?   A.1 and 2 only B.2, 3 and 4 only C.1 and 4 only D.1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer (D)

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES (SEZ)

 

 

1. Context

 

The Government of India has been taking various steps to boost the production of semiconductors and electronics in India, in a bid to reduce our dependence on imports. Some previous measures include the Semicon India programme launched in 2022 with an outlay of ₹76,000 crore. Now, the government has gone a step further and has relaxed key rules related to Special Economic Zones (SEZs) to further encourage the domestic manufacture of semiconductors and electronics.

 

2. Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

 

• Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are specifically demarcated geographical areas within a country that are governed by unique economic regulations and business laws, which are different from those applicable in the rest of the country.
• These zones are established with the primary aim of attracting foreign and domestic investment, boosting exports, generating employment, and encouraging industrial growth by providing a more liberal economic environment.
• The concept of SEZs gained momentum globally after their success in countries like China, where regions such as Shenzhen transformed into massive industrial and commercial hubs.
• India adopted the SEZ model in the early 2000s with the enactment of the Special Economic Zones Act, 2005, which provided a comprehensive legal framework for their establishment, operation, and regulation.
• Within an SEZ, companies often enjoy a host of incentives and facilities. These may include tax exemptions on income, customs and excise duties, and relaxed labor and environmental norms. The idea is to reduce bureaucratic hurdles and create an investor-friendly climate that encourages industries, especially those focused on export-oriented production, to flourish.
• Moreover, SEZs are treated as foreign territories for the purpose of trade operations, duties, and tariffs. This means that goods and services entering an SEZ from the rest of the country are treated as exports, and those leaving an SEZ to the domestic tariff area are considered imports. This unique status allows businesses in SEZs to operate with greater flexibility and global competitiveness.
• However, SEZs in India have not been without criticism. While they have succeeded in some areas in boosting exports and creating jobs, concerns have been raised over land acquisition practices, uneven regional development, and the environmental impact of industrialization. Additionally, the promise of large-scale employment and export-led growth has not materialized uniformly across all SEZs.
• In recent years, the Indian government has been looking to revamp and repurpose SEZs to align them with new economic goals, including the Make in India initiative and the promotion of green and digital manufacturing.
• As India aims to become a global manufacturing and logistics hub, SEZs are likely to play a key role, provided regulatory and infrastructural bottlenecks are addressed effectively

 

3. Significance of the semiconductor industry

 

• Semiconductors are fundamental to our increasingly digital world, serving as the core components behind technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning—part of a broader trend of growing automation and electronic integration.
• These minute chips enable the processing of large volumes of data, powering devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, smart TVs, voice assistants, vehicles, and virtually all modern electronic equipment.
• In 2021, data from the Semiconductor Industry Association indicated that China produced nearly 35% of the global semiconductor output.
• The disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerabilities of heavily centralized supply chains, prompting countries, including India, to recognize the strategic risk of relying on a single nation for critical components.
• As a result, many nations began efforts to strengthen and expand their own domestic semiconductor manufacturing capabilities

 

4. Steps taken by the Indian government

 

• On June 9, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry announced that it had recently made several changes to the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Rules, 2006, aimed at promoting local semiconductor manufacturing.
• One key change involved amending Rule 5, which previously mandated that SEZs dedicated solely to semiconductor or electronic component production must cover a minimum of 50 hectares of contiguous land.
• This requirement has now been eased, reducing the land size threshold to just 10 hectares. This adjustment is expected to lower the entry barrier for companies, enabling smaller investments while still offering access to SEZ incentives like tax breaks, duty-free imports, and infrastructure assistance.
• Another notable revision was made to Rule 7, which earlier required SEZ land to be entirely “encumbrance-free”—meaning it should be free of any legal claims, liens, or disputes and should have a clear and transferable title.
• Given the complexities of India’s land ownership systems and often time-consuming legal procedures, this requirement posed significant delays. The updated rule now gives the Board of Approval the discretion to relax this condition, allowing SEZs to be established more efficiently.
• The third change was to Rule 18, which now permits SEZ units involved in semiconductor and electronic component production to sell within the domestic market upon payment of applicable duties.
• Traditionally, SEZs have focused on exports. This shift not only provides a safeguard against global market volatility but also strengthens domestic supply chains by enabling steady availability of these critical components in the local market

 

5. Indian National Policy on semiconductors

 

 

India’s National Semiconductor Policy, officially known as the Semicon India Programme, was launched in December 2021 with the goal of building a robust semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem within the country. It marked a significant step in India’s journey to become self-reliant in chip manufacturing, reduce dependency on global supply chains, and establish itself as a key player in the global electronics value chain

The primary aim of the policy is to:

• Attract global semiconductor manufacturers to set up fabrication (fab) units in India.

• Promote design, fabrication, packaging, and testing of semiconductors.

• Create a skilled workforce for the semiconductor ecosystem.

• Enable India’s transition from being a consumer to a producer of semiconductors.

• Strengthen India’s position in global supply chains and reduce strategic vulnerabilities.

 

6. Way forward

 

As these changes have only been implemented recently, it is too early to determine their long-term consequences. Nevertheless, the initial response has been promising, with two new SEZs already receiving approval, amounting to a combined investment of ₹13,100 crore. Micron Semiconductor Technology India plans to set up a semiconductor manufacturing SEZ in Sanand, Gujarat, with an investment of around ₹13,000 crore. Additionally, the Hubballi Durable Goods Cluster, affiliated with the Aequs Group, is set to establish an SEZ for producing electronic components in Dharwad, Karnataka, at an estimated cost of ₹100 crore

 

For Prelims: Semicon India Programme, India Semiconductor Mission, Micron investment, India-USA semiconductor cooperation   For Mains: Self-reliance in technology, strategic industries, manufacturing and innovation, supply chain resilience

 

 

Source: The Hindu