SOUTHWEST MONSOON
- The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
- The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
- The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
- The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
- The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
- The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon
Mechanism:
- High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
- Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
- Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
- Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
- Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
- Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Characteristics:
- Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
- Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
- Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
- Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
- Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
- They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
- The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems
Characteristics:
- Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
- Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
- Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
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Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.
Here's a concise explanation of the process:
- Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
- Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
- Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
- Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
- Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
- Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
- The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
- Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
- The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
- The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
- The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
- Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
- El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
- The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
- El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
- Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
- La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
- The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
- La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
- La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
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SICKLE CELL DISEASE
1. Context
2. What are Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia?
Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the shape and function of red blood cells. Red blood cells are normally round and flexible, but in people with sickle cell disease, they become sickle-shaped or C-shaped. These sickle-shaped cells can get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow and causing pain, fatigue, and other serious health problems.
Symptoms of sickle cell disease can include:
- Painful episodes, called crises, that can last for days or even weeks
- Fatigue
- Shortness of breath
- Dizziness
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
- Swelling of the hands and feet
- Anemia (a lack of red blood cells)
- Frequent infections
Types of Sickle Cell Disease
There are several different types of sickle cell disease, depending on the specific mutations in the haemoglobin gene. The most common type is sickle cell anaemia (HbSS), which occurs when a person inherits two copies of the gene mutation from each parent. Other types of sickle cell disease include sickle cell-beta thalassemia (HbSB), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a beta-thalassemia gene mutation, and sickle cell-C disease (HbSC), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a haemoglobin C gene mutation.
Causes of Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle cell disease is caused by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The mutation causes the haemoglobin to be misshapen, which makes the red blood cells sickle-shaped.
2.1. Thalassaemia
Thalassaemia is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the production of haemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. People with thalassaemia have less haemoglobin than normal, which can lead to anaemia and other health problems.
Types of Thalassaemia
There are two main types of thalassaemia:
- Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha globin chain of haemoglobin.
- Beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta globin chain of haemoglobin.
Symptoms of Thalassaemia
The severity of thalassaemia symptoms depends on the type of thalassaemia and the severity of the mutation. Symptoms of thalassaemia can include:
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Shortness of breath
- Dizziness
- Slow growth
- Enlarged spleen
Causes of Thalassaemia
Thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is made up of two globin chains, alpha and beta. Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha-globin chain, while beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta-globin chain.
3. How Does the Therapy Work?
- Both sickle cell disease and thalassaemia are caused by errors in the gene for haemoglobin, a protein in the red blood cells that carry oxygen to organs and tissues.
- The therapy uses the patient’s own blood stem cells, which are precisely edited using Crispr-Cas9.
- A gene called BCL11A, which is crucial for switching from foetal to adult haemoglobin, is targeted by the therapy.
- Foetal haemoglobin, which is naturally present in everyone at birth, does not carry the same abnormalities as adult haemoglobin.
- The therapy uses the body’s own mechanisms to start producing more of this foetal haemoglobin, alleviating the symptoms of the two conditions.
3.1. Trial Results
- Sickle cell disease: 45 people received Casgevy. Only 29 of these patients had been in the trial long enough for the interim analysis on which the approval is based.
- All but one of these 29 trial participants had no severe pain crises for at least 12 months after treatment.
- Thalassaemia: The therapy has been administered to 54 persons with thalassaemia for the trial. Of them, 42 were in the trial long enough for the interim analysis. 3
- 9 of the 42 patients did not need a transfusion for at least 12 months after the treatment. The need for transfusion dropped by 70% in the other three.
4. Treatment Preparation and challenges
- Casgevy is a one-time treatment for which the doctor has to first collect blood stem cells from the bone marrow using a process called apheresis used to filter out the blood for different components.
- The cells are then sent to the manufacturing site where it takes about six months for them to be edited and tested.
- Before a transplant with the edited cells, the doctor gives a conditioning medicine for a few days to clear the bone marrow of other cells that will be replaced by the modified cells.
- The patient has to stay in the hospital for at least a month so that the edited cells take up residence in the bone marrow and start making red blood cells with normal haemoglobin.
- Side effects from the treatment are similar to those associated with autologous stem cell transplants, including nausea, fatigue, fever and increased risk of infection.
- While the therapy shows tremendous potential, the cost remains a significant challenge, with estimates suggesting it could be as high as $2 million per patient.
- This poses accessibility issues, especially for individuals in poorer countries.
- However, experts believe that with more research and development, prices may decrease, and local manufacturing facilities can enhance affordability.
| An estimated 30,000-40,000 children in India are born with sickle cell disease every year. India also has the largest number of children with thalassaemia major in the world about 1-1.5 lakh. Dr Chakraborty’s team is also working on gene therapy for sickle cell disease with the government’s big push. The team is currently working on the pre-clinical studies and are likely to enter clinical trial in the next few years. |
5. Conclusion
Casgevy's approval marks a significant milestone in Crispr-based therapy. While challenges exist, including pricing and accessibility, ongoing research and potential reductions in costs indicate a promising future for gene therapies. The working gene therapy for sickle cell disease with upcoming clinical trials in the pipeline.
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For Prelims: Sickle Cell Disease, thalassaemia, CrisprCas9, Noble Prize, red blood cells,
For Mains:
1. Critically analyze the challenges associated with gene therapy, including cost and accessibility, and discuss potential solutions. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Sick cell anemia (Sickle cell anemia) is caused by? (UPSSSC Chakbandi Lekhpal 2019)
A. Deficiency of folic acid
B. Abnormal levels of hemoglobin
C. Deficiency of iron
D. Decreased production of red blood cells (RBCs)
3. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC 2019)
A. A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
B. A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
C. A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
D. A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2018)
Terms Sometimes seen in news Context/Topic
1. Bell II experiment Artificial
2. Blockchain Digital/Cryptocurrency
3. CRISPR - Cas9 Particle Physics
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
5. Einstein got the Nobel Prize for (BPSC 64TH CCE 2018)
A. relativity
B. Bose-Einstein condensation
C. mass-energy equivalence
D. photoelectric effect
E. None of the above/More than one of the above
6. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Max Planck (b) Albert Einstein (c) William Henry Bragg (d) Enrico Fermi
7. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Metallurgy (b) Meteorology (c) Environmental protection (d) Genetics
8. Nobel Prize for Economics was instituted in the year _______ (Punjab Patwari 2016) A. 1984 B. 1962 C. 1948 D. 1968 9. Red blood cells (RBCs) have (NDA 2017)
A. no nucleus, no mitochondria, and no endoplasmic reticulum
B. nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum
C. nucleus, mitochondria but no endoplasmic reticulum
D. no mitochondria but endoplasmic reticulum is present
10. Which one of the following statements about blood elements is correct? (UPSC CAPF 2018)
A. Red blood cells number is same as that of white blood cells and platelets.
B. The number of white blood cells is more than red blood cells.
C. The number of red blood cells is the highest.
D. The number of red blood cells is lower than platelets.
Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-B, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-D, 9-A, 10-C
Mains
1. What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? (UPSC 2021)
2. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (UPSC 2021)
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INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA)
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The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was founded in 1957 in response to growing global concerns and hopes regarding the expansion of nuclear technology. Its establishment was inspired by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s landmark “Atoms for Peace” speech delivered to the United Nations General Assembly on December 8, 1953.
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In recognition of its significant contributions to global peace and safety, the IAEA and its Director General at the time, Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. The award acknowledged their efforts to prevent the military use of nuclear energy while promoting its safe application for peaceful purposes.
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IAEA safeguards are rooted in binding international agreements, which countries voluntarily accept upon entering into treaties with the agency. These safeguards are crucial in ensuring states adhere to nuclear non-proliferation commitments through independent monitoring and verification.
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The IAEA categorizes its safeguards into three primary types, all of which can be supplemented by an Additional Protocol (AP):
(a) Comprehensive Safeguards Agreements, applicable to non-nuclear-weapon states under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT);
(b) Voluntary Offer Agreements, involving nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the NPT;
(c) Item-Specific Safeguards Agreements, which are applied to countries outside the NPT framework. -
In 2014, India officially ratified the Additional Protocol, enhancing the IAEA’s ability to monitor its civilian nuclear facilities. India, along with Pakistan and Israel, has signed item-specific safeguard agreements with the IAEA. These nations, although nuclear-capable, are not part of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
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The IAEA created the Incident and Emergency Centre in 2009 to manage international cooperation and provide assistance in the event of nuclear or radiological emergencies, irrespective of their origin or magnitude
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After India conducted its nuclear tests in 1974, the United States advocated for the creation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), a coalition of 48 countries that establishes and enforces common guidelines for the export of nuclear technology and materials. The primary objective of this group is to prevent nuclear proliferation, and decisions on membership require unanimous agreement.
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Since 2008, India has actively sought membership in the NSG. Gaining entry would allow India to participate in shaping the rules of global nuclear trade and eventually enable it to engage in the sale of nuclear equipment.
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The NSG operates in alignment with the broader global nuclear non-proliferation framework, which is centered around the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The NPT only recognizes countries that tested nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967, as nuclear-weapon states. As India conducted its tests later, it does not qualify under this definition and, like Pakistan and Israel, has not signed the treaty.
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Although nuclear energy was seen as a potential area for international collaboration, India's non-membership in the NPT meant it was excluded from access to nuclear technology. The signing of the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement helped break this deadlock.
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Under this agreement, India committed to separating its military and civilian nuclear facilities, placing the latter under the oversight of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India also aligned its export control policies with those of the NSG and three other major non-proliferation regimes — the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the Wassenaar Arrangement, and the Australia Group.
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In February 2025, both India and the United States reaffirmed their commitment to fully implement the US-India 123 Civil Nuclear Agreement. They also agreed to advance cooperation on the development of American-designed nuclear reactors in India, emphasizing large-scale domestic manufacturing and potential transfer of technology
- Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR): Formed in 1987, the MTCR is a voluntary association of countries committed to preventing the spread of missiles and related technologies capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction. It currently includes 35 member nations. India became a member in June 2016, while China remains outside the group.
- Australia Group: This is an informal coalition of countries working together to ensure that exports of chemical and biological materials do not aid in the development of weapons. By coordinating export control policies, the group seeks to prevent the misuse of these materials. India officially joined as the 43rd member on January 19, 2018.
- Wassenaar Arrangement (WA): Established in 1996, the Wassenaar Arrangement promotes openness and responsible behavior in the trade of conventional weapons and dual-use technologies to prevent excessive stockpiling and to keep such items out of the hands of terrorists. India became the 42nd member state of the WA in 2017
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For Prelims: Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), Wassenaar Arrangement (WA)
For Mains: GS III -International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
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Previous Year Questions
1.In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not? (2020) (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium (b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately owned Answer (b) 2.In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the ‘Additional Protocol’ with the ‘International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)’? (UPSC CSE 2018) (a) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards. (b) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA. (c) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). (d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG. Answer (a) |
PRESIDENTIAL REFERENCE
The Supreme Court's advisory role, as outlined in Article 143, traces its origins to the Government of India Act of 1935. This act granted the Governor-General the authority to seek the opinion of the federal court on significant legal matters.
A comparable feature exists in the Canadian Constitution, where the Supreme Court of Canada is empowered to give advisory opinions on legal issues referred by either the federal or provincial governments. In contrast, the U.S. Supreme Court has consistently refused to issue advisory opinions to the executive branch, adhering strictly to the principle of separation of powers embedded in the American Constitution
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Under Article 143 of the Constitution, the President has the authority to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion on any legal or factual issue deemed to be of public significance. This referral is made based on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers. According to Article 145, such matters must be examined by a bench comprising at least five judges of the Supreme Court. Following the hearing, the Court may deliver its opinion as it deems appropriate. While the opinion is not legally binding on the President and does not set a judicial precedent, it holds considerable persuasive value. Consequently, it is generally respected and adhered to by both the executive and the judiciary |
3. Past instances
- Since 1950, approximately fifteen presidential references have been made to the Supreme Court, excluding the most recent one. Below are brief summaries of some notable opinions delivered by the Court in response to these references.
- The first such reference came in the Delhi Laws Act case (1951), where the Court outlined the concept of delegated legislation, allowing the legislature to delegate certain law-making powers to the executive for efficient law implementation.
- In the Kerala Education Bill case (1958), the Court established the principle of harmonious interpretation between Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy, while also clarifying the constitutional safeguards for minority-run educational institutions under Article 30.
- In the Berubari Union case (1960), the Court held that any transfer or acquisition of Indian territory requires a constitutional amendment as per Article 368. The Keshav Singh case (1965) addressed the scope of legislative powers and privileges.
- In the Presidential Election case (1974), the Court ruled that elections for the President must proceed even if there are vacancies in the electoral college due to the dissolution of state assemblies.
- The Special Courts Bill reference (1978) was particularly important, as the Court clarified that it can choose not to respond to a reference, that the questions posed must be clear and precise, and that the judiciary must not intrude into Parliament's domain when giving its opinion.
- The Third Judges case (1998) resulted in a comprehensive set of guidelines shaping the collegium system for appointing judges to the higher judiciary.
- Although the Supreme Court is not bound to respond to every reference, it has declined to provide an opinion on only one occasion — in 1993, concerning the Ram Janmabhoomi dispute
4. Current reference
- The current presidential reference stems from a recent Supreme Court ruling that established specific timelines for the President and State Governors to act on Bills passed by State legislatures.
- In that judgment, the Court also asserted that the decisions made by the President and Governors regarding such Bills are open to judicial scrutiny. This reference has posed 14 key questions, mainly focusing on the interpretation of Articles 200 and 201 of the Constitution.
- The central government has raised concerns about whether courts can impose timelines when the Constitution itself does not prescribe any. It also questions whether the actions of the President and Governors, taken before a Bill becomes law, can be subjected to judicial review. Additionally, the reference seeks clarity on the scope of the Supreme Court’s powers under Article 142.
- This legal dispute has largely been driven by political tensions between the Union government and Opposition-led State governments. In its judgment, the Supreme Court had referred to the timelines mentioned in a Ministry of Home Affairs Office Memorandum concerning the President's assent to Bills.
- Notably, in the Cauvery dispute reference (1992), the Court had stated that, in an advisory capacity, it does not have the authority to review its previous rulings.
- Nevertheless, a definitive opinion in the present case is expected to bring clarity to important constitutional questions, thereby aiding in the effective functioning of federalism and democratic governance
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For Prelims: Article 143, Supreme Court's advisory jurisdiction
For Mains: General Studies II - Indian Polity & Governance
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Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 3 only Answer: D 2. With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019) Answer: B 3. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
4. Consider the following statements about Electoral Bond Scheme 2018: (RPSC RAS Prelims 2018)
(A) The aim of this scheme is to bring about transparency in the funding process of political parties.
(B) Only the political parties recognized by the Election Commission which secured not less than one per cent of the votes polled in the last general election to the House of People or the Legislative Assembly of the State shall be eligible to receive the Electoral Bonds.
(C) Electoral Bonds shall be valid for fifteen calendar days from the date of issue.
(D) The Electoral Bond deposited by an eligible political party in its account shall be credited on the same day.
Which of the above statements are correct?
1. Only (A) and (B)
2. (A), (B), (C) and (D)
3. Only (B), (C) and (D)
4. Only (A), (C) and (D)
Answer: 2
5. With reference to the PM CARES Fund, consider the following statements: (AFCAT 27 2022)
I. The amount collected by it directly goes to the Consolidated Fund of India.
II. It can avail donations from the foreign contribution and donations to fund can also avail 100% tax exemption.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. I only B. II only C. Both I and II D. Neither I nor II
Answer: B
6. The Prime Minister's National Relief Fund is operated by which one of the following bodies? (CDS 2019)
A. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO)
B. The National Disaster Management Authority
C. The Ministry of Finance
D. The National Development Council (NDC)
Answer: A
Mains 1. In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC 2018) 2. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. ( UPSC 2022) |
MOST FAVOURED NATION (MFN)
- The term "Most Favoured Nation" (MFN) refers to a principle in international trade where a country agrees to treat another country equally in terms of trade advantages. It might sound like one country is being given special treatment, but in reality, MFN status means non-discriminatory treatment — that is, the receiving country gets the same favorable terms as any other nation.
- Here’s how it works in practice: Imagine Country A has trade agreements with several countries. If Country A gives one of those countries a lower tariff rate or special access to its markets, it must extend the same benefit to all other countries it has granted MFN status to. This ensures that trade policies are fair and uniform, preventing countries from playing favorites.
- The MFN principle is a cornerstone of the World Trade Organization (WTO). All members of the WTO are automatically granted MFN status by one another, unless an exception applies (such as a free trade agreement or customs union, which are allowed under WTO rules).
- So in essence, Most Favoured Nation doesn’t mean the "most preferred" in a literal sense. Rather, it guarantees that the country will not be treated less favorably than any other country — it’s about ensuring equality in trade relationships
- India’s generic pharmaceutical sector plays a crucial role in supplying affordable medicines, not just domestically but also to countries like the United States and the United Kingdom.
- However, this industry has often been at odds with major pharmaceutical companies in developed nations. These firms contend that India’s relatively lenient intellectual property regulations put them at a disadvantage.
- This tension escalated when the U.S. placed India on its “Priority Watch List” for intellectual property concerns—an action that significantly impacts drug production—and was further reflected in an executive order signed by then-President Trump.
- Ajay Srivastava, head of the Global Trade and Research Initiative (GTRI), remarked that Trump’s policy on Most Favoured Nation (MFN) pricing should serve as a warning. As Western markets enforce stricter price controls, pharmaceutical companies may intensify their push to raise prices in countries like India to compensate.
- Although India’s pharmaceutical regulations adhere to the WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), the country has consistently pushed back against adopting additional protections, known as “TRIPS-plus” measures.
- These are often introduced through Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) by developed countries and include provisions like data exclusivity, automatic extensions of patent terms, stronger patent linkage mechanisms, more expansive patent eligibility, and the controversial practice of evergreening
- The Priority Watch List is part of the Special 301 Report, an annual review conducted by the United States Trade Representative (USTR). This report identifies countries that the U.S. believes do not provide adequate protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPR), such as patents, copyrights, and trademarks.
- Countries placed on the Priority Watch List are considered to have serious IPR concerns that significantly affect U.S. companies or industries. While being on the list doesn’t automatically lead to penalties or sanctions, it signals strong disapproval from the U.S. and may lead to increased diplomatic pressure or trade negotiations aimed at reforming the country’s IP laws or enforcement practices.
- For example, a country like India has often been placed on this list because, from the U.S. perspective, its patent laws (especially in the pharmaceutical sector) are seen as too flexible or not fully aligned with U.S. standards.
- This includes issues like allowing generic versions of drugs to enter the market more easily, or resisting stricter IP protections such as data exclusivity and patent term extensions.
- In short, the Priority Watch List acts as a diplomatic tool that the U.S. uses to push countries toward adopting stronger IP protections that align more closely with American commercial interests
The Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) is a treaty between two or more countries that aims to prevent individuals and businesses from being taxed twice on the same income.
Here’s how it works in a simplified, explanatory way:
When a person or a company earns income in one country (say, Country A) but is a resident of another country (Country B), both countries may claim the right to tax that income. This can lead to double taxation, which is unfair and discourages cross-border trade and investment.
To solve this issue, countries sign a DTAA. This agreement outlines which country gets to tax what type of income, such as salaries, business profits, dividends, interest, royalties, or capital gains. The goal is to make sure the same income is not taxed twice or, if it is, that a credit or exemption is given to offset the burden.
There are two main ways DTAAs avoid double taxation:
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Exemption method – One country agrees to not tax the income at all if it’s already taxed in the other.
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Credit method – The country of residence taxes the income, but gives a credit for the tax already paid in the source country.
For example, if an Indian resident earns income in the United States, and both countries have a DTAA in place, that income won’t be taxed twice. Either India will exempt the income or allow the individual to deduct the tax already paid in the U.S. from their Indian tax liability.
Apart from avoiding double taxation, DTAAs also aim to:
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Prevent tax evasion and promote transparency.
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Encourage foreign investment by creating a more predictable and fair tax environment.
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Clearly define tax residency, which is especially useful for people or businesses with cross-border activities
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international Significance.
For Mains:General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? (2019)
1. Genetic predisposition of some people 2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases 3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming 4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Answer (b)
Multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens arises when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist the effects of medications that were once effective against them. In India, several human practices contribute significantly to this issue. Let’s evaluate the options:
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MAJOR DEFENCE AGREEMENTS
India–Russia Relations:
India’s air defence capabilities were put to the test during Pakistani aerial strikes on multiple military installations and cities, during which the Integrated Counter-UAS Grid and key surface-to-air missile systems like the S-400 Triumf (procured from Russia), Barak 8 MRSAM, and Akash were deployed.- These systems form the backbone of India’s defence shield. In addition to these, India and Russia have established a strong defence partnership through agreements involving the acquisition of MiG-29 jets, Kamov helicopters, and licensed production of military platforms such as T-90 tanks, Su-30MKI fighter aircraft, AK-203 rifles, and the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile. Notably, the Indian Navy's aircraft carrier, INS Vikramaditya, was formerly Russia's Admiral Gorshkov.
India–UK Relations:
- India and the United Kingdom recently concluded a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), marking a milestone in their bilateral ties. In early 2025, the two nations formalised their defence collaboration under Defence Partnership-I (DP-I) at the Aero India event.
- Notable developments include a contract between Thales UK and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) for the delivery of Laser Beam Riding MANPADS (LBRM), particularly the STARStreak missile systems, and a joint effort with MBDA UK to establish a facility in Hyderabad for advanced air-to-air missile assembly and testing. These initiatives aim to bolster India’s air combat capabilities and expand defence exports.
India–France Relations:
In a recent intergovernmental deal, India agreed to acquire 26 Rafale-M aircraft — 22 single-seaters and 4 dual-seaters — for its navy, along with related simulators, equipment, weaponry, and logistics support.- France, like Russia, has remained a dependable defence partner, notably refraining from imposing sanctions after India's 1998 nuclear tests. Over the years, India and France have collaborated extensively in international platforms.
- Following the Ukraine conflict, France emerged as one of the top three destinations for Indian defence exports in 2023–24. Both countries have committed to a Defence Industrial Roadmap that includes joint projects such as the Scorpene submarines, additional Rafale and helicopter procurement, and efforts toward domestic manufacturing.
India–Thailand Relations:
- During the 6th BIMSTEC summit held in Thailand, India and Thailand elevated their bilateral ties to a strategic partnership, emphasizing defence cooperation.
- The two sides agreed to create formal mechanisms for high-level consultations, including a strategic dialogue between their National Security Councils. Defence collaboration is to be strengthened through technology transfer, joint training programs, and industrial partnerships.
India–United States Relations:
India and the United States launched the US–India COMPACT initiative to promote deep strategic cooperation in defence, technology, and commerce. During Defence Minister Rajnath Singh’s visit to the US, both nations signed a Security of Supply Arrangement (SOSA) and a Memorandum of Agreement on Liaison Officers.- SOSA will ensure mutual priority support for defence-related goods and services. India’s inventory now includes several US-origin defence platforms such as the C-130J Super Hercules, C-17 Globemaster III, P-8I Poseidon, Chinook and Seahawk helicopters, Apache attack helicopters, Harpoon missiles, M777 howitzers, and MQ-9B drones. Talks continue on acquiring F-35 Lightning-II fighter jets.
India–New Zealand Relations:
In March 2025, India signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on defence cooperation with New Zealand, a member of the Five Eyes intelligence alliance. The agreement aims to facilitate regular military engagement and deeper bilateral defence cooperation, signed during the New Zealand Prime Minister's visit to India.
India–Indonesia Relations:
Reflecting deep-rooted cultural and strategic ties, Indonesia’s President Prabowo Subianto was the Chief Guest at India’s Republic Day celebrations. Both nations reiterated their commitment to enhancing cooperation in maritime security, cybersecurity, counter-terrorism, and de-radicalisation.- They celebrated the ratification of the Defence Cooperation Agreement (DCA) signed in 2018 and emphasized ongoing joint initiatives such as the India–Indonesia Coordinated Patrol and regular military exercises involving the army and navy
India actively participates in a wide range of joint military exercises across the three branches of its armed forces—Army, Navy, and Air Force—to strengthen defence cooperation, enhance interoperability, and share strategic and tactical knowledge with partner countries.
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With the United Kingdom:
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Exercise Ajeya Warrior involves the Indian Army and the British Army, focusing on counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism operations in semi-urban environments.
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Exercise Konkan is a bilateral naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the Royal Navy, designed to boost maritime collaboration and operational synergy.
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Exercise Indradhanush-IV is an Air Force-level drill, where the Indian Air Force and the Royal Air Force engage in joint air combat maneuvers, including aerial refueling and close-combat simulations.
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With Thailand:
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Exercise Maitree is a joint Army exercise conducted between the Indian Army and the Royal Thai Army, focusing on counter-terrorism and jungle warfare.
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The India–Thailand Coordinated Patrol (Indo-Thai CORPAT) is a naval exercise aimed at enhancing maritime security through coordinated patrols in the Andaman Sea.
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With the United States:
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Exercise Yudh Abhyas is a bilateral Army exercise focusing on joint military operations in counter-insurgency and humanitarian assistance scenarios.
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Exercise Vajra Prahar is a special forces training program between the Indian and U.S. Armies to enhance joint tactical cooperation.
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Exercise Malabar is a high-end naval exercise involving India, the U.S., and other Indo-Pacific allies, focusing on naval interoperability, anti-submarine warfare, and maritime security.
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Red Flag 16-1 is a prestigious multinational air combat exercise hosted by the United States Air Force, in which the Indian Air Force has participated to enhance aerial combat readiness and coordination with allied forces.
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With Indonesia:
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Exercise Garuda Shakti is an Army-level joint drill with the Indonesian Army, aimed at improving tactical-level operations in counter-insurgency environments.
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Exercise Samudra Shakti is a naval exercise with the Indonesian Navy, designed to improve interoperability in maritime security operations and joint navigation tactics
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Five Eyes intelligence alliance
“Five Eyes” refers to an intelligence-sharing alliance of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and New Zealand. It was formed during World War II. The history of the ‘Five Eyes’ alliance dates back to an intelligence-sharing agreement signed between Washington and London
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India has not officially disclosed the specific weapons used during Operation Sindoor, conducted in the early hours of May 7. The Indian Armed Forces, however, confirmed that precision strikes were executed against terrorist infrastructure located deep within Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). While the details of the armaments remain classified, India possesses several advanced long-range precision-guided weapons and drones that are likely candidates for such operations. These include:
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HAMMER (Highly Agile and Manoeuvrable Munition Extended Range): Designed for the Rafale jets, HAMMER is an air-to-ground precision weapon capable of striking targets up to 70 km away. It is adaptable and can be integrated with different bomb configurations and guided munitions.
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SCALP (Système de Croisière Autonome à Longue Portée – Emploi Général): Known as Storm Shadow in the UK, SCALP is a stealthy, air-launched cruise missile optimized for deep-penetration strikes. It functions effectively under all weather conditions and at night, making it a formidable tool for long-range precision targeting.
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BRAHMOS: This supersonic cruise missile is jointly developed by India’s DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyeniya under the BrahMos Aerospace partnership. Capable of being launched from land, sea, and air platforms, BrahMos follows the "fire-and-forget" model and can maneuver along various flight trajectories to accurately strike its target.
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METEOR: The Meteor is an advanced Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM) equipped to handle high-threat environments, including those with dense electronic warfare activity. It enhances an aircraft’s capability to neutralize aerial threats from a significant distance
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For Prelims:Brahmos missile, Five Eyes intelligence alliance
For Mains: GS III - Defence Acquisition
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (d) |
