GENOME MAPPING

1. Context

2. Human Genome Project (HGP)

• One of the most comprehensive genome mapping projects in the world is the Human Genome Project (HGP), which began in 1990 and reached completion in 2003.
• The international project, which was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Energy, was undertaken with the aim of sequencing the human genome and identifying the genes that contain it.
• The project was able to identify the locations of many human genes and provide information about their structure and organization.

3. Genome Mapping

• Gene mapping refers to the technique used to identify a gene's location and distance between genes.
• The distances between various sites inside a gene can also be described through gene mapping.
• Placing several molecular markers at specific locations on the genome is the fundamental element of all genome mapping.
• There are many types of molecular markers. When creating genome maps, genes can be observed as a particular class of genetic markers mapped similarly to other markers.

4. Types of Gene Mapping

• Genetic linkage maps and physical maps are the two main categories of "Maps" used in gene mapping.
• Both maps consist of genetic markers and gene loci. While physical maps involve actual physical distances, often measured in a number of base pairs, distances of genetic maps are based on genetic linkage information.
• There are many gene mapping methods, including comparative, physical, and genetic-linkage mapping. However, physical, and genetic-linkage mapping are more common.

5. What does genome mapping tell us?

• According to the Human Genome Project, there are estimated to be over 20,500 human genes.
• Genome refers to an organism's complete set of DNA, which includes all its genes, and mapping these genes simply means finding out the location of these genes in a chromosome.
• In humans, each cell consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes, which means that for 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, there are roughly 20,500 genes located on them.
• Some of the genes are lined up in a row on each chromosome, while others are lined up quite close to one another and this arrangement might affect the way they are inherited.
• For Example, if the genes are placed sufficiently close together, there is a probability that they get inherited as a pair.
• Genome mapping, therefore, essentially means figuring out the location of a specific gene on a particular region of the chromosome and also determining the location of relative distances between other genes on that chromosome.
• Significantly, genome mapping enables scientists to gather evidence if a disease transmitted from the parent to the child is linked to one or more genes.
• Furthermore, mapping also helps in determining the particular chromosome which contains that gene and the location of that gene in the chromosome.
• According to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), genome maps have been used to find out genes that are responsible for relatively rare, single-gene inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
• Genetic maps may also point out scientists to the genes that play a role in more common disorders and diseases such as asthma, cancer, and heart disease among others.

6. Why it is more important?

• A complete human genome makes it easier to study genetic variation between individuals or between populations.
• A genome refers to all of the genetic material in an organism, and the human genome is mostly the same in all people, but a very small part of the DNA does vary between one individual and another.
• By constructing a complete human genome, scientists can use it for reference while studying the genome of various individuals, which would help them understand which variations, if any, might be responsible for the disease.

7. What was missing?

• The genetic sequence made available in 2003 from the Human Genome Project, an international collaboration between 1990 and 2003, contained information from a region of the human genome known as the euchromatin.
• Here, the chromosome is rich in genes, and the DNA encodes for protein. The 8% that was left out was in the area called heterochromatin. This is a smaller portion of the genome and does not produce protein. 
• There were at least two key reasons why heterochromatin was given lower priority. This part of the genome was thought to be “junk DNA” because it had no clear function.
• Besides, the euchromatin contained more genes that were simpler to sequence with the tools available at the time.
• Now, the fully sequenced genome is the result of the efforts of a global collaboration called the Telomere-2- Telomere (T2T) project.
• The invention of new methods of DNA sequencing and computational analysis helped complete the reading of the remaining 8% of the genome. 

8. What is in the 8%?

• The new reference genome, called T2TCHM13, includes highly repetitive DNA sequences found in and around the telomeres (structures at the ends of chromosomes) and the centromeres (at the middle section of each chromosome).
• The new sequence also reveals long stretches of DNA that are duplicated in the genome and are known to play important roles in evolution and disease.
• The fact that the sequences are repetitive is enlightening. The findings have revealed a large number of genetic variations, and these variations appear in large part within these repeated sequences.
• A significant amount of human genetic material turns out to be long, repetitive sections that occur over and over.
• Although every human has some repeats, not everyone has the same number of them. And the difference in the number of repeats is where most of the human genetic variation is found,” the University of Connecticut said in a press release.
• Many of the newly revealed regions have important functions in the genome even if they do not include active genes. 

Previous year Question

1. With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of 'genome sequencing', often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future? (UPSC 2017) 1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants. 2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants. 3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

HEATWAVE

 

1. Context

On May 12, 17 districts of Andhra Pradesh recorded temperatures above 41ºC, with the A.P. State Disaster Management Authority saying heatwave-like conditions are set to prevail in the northern districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Paravathipuram-Manyam, East Godavari, and Kakinada. Mercury levels surged past the 40º C mark across all 33 districts of Telangana on April 21. Situated on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau in south India, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana feature regularly on the list of Indian States most prone to heatwaves during the summer.

2. What is a Heat Wave?

• A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
• Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
• This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
• The last three years have been La Niña years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Niño year. (The El Niño is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads west­east across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.)
• As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Niño this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
• Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Niño years.

 

Image Source:News18

3. How do Heat waves Occur?

• Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or it is being produced locally.
• It is a local phenomenon when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.
• First of all, in spring, India typically has air flowing in from the west­northwest. This direction of air­flow is bad news for India for several reasons.
• Likewise, air flowing in from the northwest rolls in over the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan, so some of the compression also happens on the leeward side of these mountains, entering India with a bristling warmth.
• While air flowing over the oceans is expected to bring cooler air, the Arabian Sea is warming faster than most other ocean regions.
• Next, the strong upper atmospheric westerly winds, from the Atlantic Ocean to India during spring, control the near-surface winds.
• Any time winds flow from the west to the east, we need to remember that the winds are blowing faster than the planet which also rotates from west to east.
• The energy to run past the earth near the surface, against surface friction, can only come from above. This descending air compresses and warms up to generate some heat waves.

4. Impacts of heat waves in India

• The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
• For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
• Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
• Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
• Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
• Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
• According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
• The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
• The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.
  These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.

5. How does air mass contribute to heat waves?

• The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
• The north northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1600 km away and are around two days old.
• Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand, arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400km) and are barely a day old. As a result, they are on average less intense.

6. Way ahead for Heat waves

• Identifying heat hot spots through appropriate tracking of meteorological data and promoting timely development and implementation of local Heat Action Plans with strategic inter-agency coordination, and a response that targets the most vulnerable groups.
• Review existing occupational health standards, labor laws, and sectoral regulations for worker safety in relation to climatic conditions.
• Policy intervention and coordination across three sectors health, water, and power are necessary.
• Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
• Popularisation of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks, and insulating house materials.
• Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response that the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans. For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010) 1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

PERIODIC LABOUR FORCE SURVEY (PLFS)

 

 

1. Context

The Union Government has decided to revamp the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), started in 2017, to include employment and unemployment data from rural areas too

2. About The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is a sample survey conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) of India to provide information on the labour force and employment situation in the country.
• The survey is conducted annually in all the states and union territories of India.
• The PLFS provides data on various employment indicators, including the labour force participation rate (LFPR), unemployment rate (UR), worker population ratio (WPR), and employment by industry and occupation.
• The PLFS sheds light on the proportion of individuals seeking employment, the unemployment rate, gender disparities in employment and wages, and the sectoral distribution of workers.
• Additionally, it details the types of employment, such as casual labour, self-employment, and regular salaried jobs.
• This comprehensive data is crucial for understanding the dynamics of the Indian labour market and formulating effective employment strategies.

 

3. Data Collection Methods in PLFS

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) collects employment data using two methods: Usual Status (US) and Current Weekly Status (CWS).
• In the US method, respondents are asked to recall their employment details for the past year, while in the CWS method, they are asked to recall their employment details for the past week.
• The labour force estimate derived from the US method includes individuals who worked or were seeking/available for work for a significant portion of the past year, as well as those who worked for at least 30 days during the reference period.
• Conversely, the labour force estimate based on the CWS method encompasses those who worked for at least one hour or sought/were available for work for at least one hour on any day during the past week.
• The global trend has shifted towards a greater emphasis on CWS data due to the improved accuracy of recall for shorter reference periods. 

4. Latest findings of the Report

Unemployment Rate (UER)

• The UER is often the most talked about metric in popular discourse. Simply put, it refers to the proportion of people who demanded work over the past year and failed to get it.
• As the data in Table 1 shows, for the population above 15 years of age, the UER has fallen significantly from 6.6% to 5.1% over the last year (that is, July to June cycle).
• Simply put, 5.1% of all the people above 15 years of age who demanded work failed to get one. 

Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

• The Unemployment Rate (UER) is calculated as a proportion of the population that is demanding work.
• However, this population also fluctuates for various reasons. The Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is a measure of the total population demanding work, expressed as a proportion of the total population above 15 years of age.
• As seen in Table 1, India's LFPR, which had been gradually increasing, has experienced a significant surge in the past year.
• As of 2022-23, 54.6% of all Indians above the age of 15 were actively seeking employment.

 

LFPR for women

• This metric looks at LFPR among women to ascertain where the additional demand for jobs is coming from.
• The data shows that female LFPR has gone up over the years but there were two discrete step-ups one in 2019-20 (when India’s GDP growth rate had slowed down to less than 4% and this was before the Covid pandemic hit) and the second in 2022-23 when it rose to 31.6%.

Worker Population Rate

• Since the proportion of people demanding work (the LFPR) goes up and down and the percentage of those failing to get a job (the UER) is expressed as a proportion of the former, it can throw off analysis.
• As such, there is another way to look at the labour market: Worker Population Ratio (WPR).
• The WPR is the percentage of persons employed among the persons in the population.
• Thus, instead of looking at how many demand a job and how many fail to get it, the WPR simply gives a measure of how many people have a job as a proportion of the total population.
• This metric too has been going up and especially noteworthy are the two discrete
  step-ups in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

WPR among women

This metric throws light on the WPR for women to understand what’s leading to the spike in overall WPR. Again, the WPR for women has been going up but two main spikes have been in 2019-20 and 2022-23.

Monthly earnings

The PLFS reports also provide a sense of how much people earn in different types of jobs.

While it is true that incomes have broadly gone up after falling during Covid the main takeaway from this data emerges when one compares how little have monthly incomes changed over the past 6 years, especially in the face of a sharp rise in inflation. To be sure, since late 2019, annual consumer inflation has always been above the RBI’s target of 4%.

 

Distribution of workers

To accurately make sense of more and more people working, it is important to know not just what they earn but also what kind of work they do. For this, we look at data collected over the usual status by PLFS. Table 3 alongside gives the details of the three main classifications: self-employment, casual labour (say a construction worker) and regular salaried job. Self-employed has two sub-categories:

(i) own account worker and employer and

(ii) unpaid helper in household enterprises. 

 

The data shows that self-employment has risen and jobs in the other two categories have fallen in proportion. It is also noteworthy that self-employment among women is the key driver for this overall trend. 

 

5. Key Trends in PLFS 2022-23

• Upon initial analysis, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for 2022-23 reveals several encouraging trends. The unemployment rate is on a downward trajectory, and both the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and Workforce Participation Rate (WPR) exhibit substantial increases. A particularly heartening development is the notable rise in the participation of women in the workforce. This suggests a positive correlation between economic recovery and the creation of more employment opportunities, especially for women.
• However, a closer examination of the nature and remuneration of these new jobs alters the understanding. The predominant trend is the emergence of jobs falling under the category of "self-employment." Typically, in a growing economy, businesses tend to hire more employees. Conversely, during economic challenges, individuals often transition from regular employment to "self-employed" status. This nuanced perspective prompts a reconsideration of the quality and sustainability of the employment being generated.
• Analyzing the trends among women across various metrics reveals an interesting dynamic. The data suggests that economic strains on household finances have led more women, previously outside the workforce, to join in. However, a noteworthy observation is the prevalence of women taking up roles as "unpaid helpers in household enterprises," highlighting a complex interplay between economic conditions and women's workforce participation.
• Furthermore, an examination of the sectoral landscape indicates a regressive shift in India's employment patterns. Notably, there has been an increase in the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture over the past year, while the numbers in manufacturing have witnessed a decline. This shift underscores the evolving economic dynamics and sectoral preferences shaping the employment scenario.
• In a thriving economy, one would expect an improvement in monthly incomes. However, the Indian scenario deviates from this expectation. Despite positive indicators in other areas, the data suggests that the overall economic boom is not translating into significant improvements in monthly incomes for individuals in India. This anomaly prompts a closer examination of the factors contributing to this divergence.

6. The WayForward

While there are positive signals in the headline indicators, a more nuanced analysis reveals complexities like job creation, women's participation dynamics, sectoral shifts, and income patterns. This holistic perspective is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impact of economic trends on the labour market in India.

 

For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio For Mains: 1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: Codes: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true     2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020) 1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low   4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false. B. (A) is false, but (R) is true. C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A). D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A). Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Indian Express

 

RETAIL INFLATION

 

1. Context

Retail inflation rate slipped to a 69-month or near six-year low of 3.16 per cent in April, primarily due to moderation in prices of food items including vegetables, pulses, cereals, meat and fish, data released by the National Statistics Office (NSO) showed

2. What is Inflation?

• It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
• In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
• Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.

3. Retail Inflation

Consumers often directly buy from retailers. So, the inflation experienced at retail reflects the actual price rise in the country. It also shows the cost of living better. In India, the index that reflects the inflation rate at the retail level is known as Consumer Price Index (CPI). Unlike WPI, CPI includes both goods and services. CPI is used to calculate the Dearness Allowance (DA) for government employees.

4. How Inflation is measured?

• In India, inflation is primarily measured by two main indices- WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index), Which measures Wholesale and retail-level price changes, respectively.
• The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food, medical care, education, electronics, etc, which Indian consumers buy for use.
• On the other hand, the goods or services sold by businesses to smaller businesses for selling further are captured by the WPI.
• Both WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) are used to measure inflation in India. 

5. What is the Inflation Target?

• Under Section 45ZA, in consultation with the RBI Act, the Central Government determines the inflation target in terms of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), once in five years and notifies it in the Official Gazette.
• Accordingly, on August 5, 2016, the Central Government notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 percent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 percent.
• On March 31, 2021, the Central Government retained the inflation target and the tolerance band for the next 5-year period-April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2026.
• Section 45ZB of the RBI Act provides for the constitution of a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy rate required to achieve the inflation target.

6. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

• The MPC is a statutory and institutionalized framework under the RBI Act, of 1934, for maintaining price stability, keeping in mind the objective of growth. It was created in 2016.
• It was created to bring transparency and accountability in deciding monetary policy.
• MPC determines the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target.
• The committee comprises six members and Governor RBI acts as an ex-officio chairman. Three members are from RBI and three are selected by the government. The inflation target is to be set once every five years. It is set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
• The current inflation target is pegged at 4% with -2/+2 tolerance till March 31, 2021.

7. What Caused the drop in Inflation?

• Retail Inflation or price gains based on the Consumer Price Index, slowed to 6.77 % last month, from September's 7.41%, aided by an appreciable deceleration in food price inflation.
• The year-on-year inflation based on the Consumer Food Price Index eased by almost 160 basis points in October, to 7.01%, from the preceding month's 8.60%, helped by a 'decline in prices of vegetables, fruits, pulses and oils, and fats', the Government said.
• With the food and beverages sub-index representing almost 46% of the CPI's weight, the slowdown in food price gains understandably steered overall inflation lower even as price gains in three other essential categories, namely clothing, and footwear, housing, and health remained either little changed from September or quickened.
• Inflation at the Wholesale Prices Level also continued to decelerate, with the headline reading easing into single digits for the first time in 19 months. A favorable base effect along with a distinct cooling in international prices of commodities including crude oil and steel amid gathering uncertainty in advanced economies was largely instrumental in tempering wholesale price gains.

8. Recent Measures by the Government

To soften the prices of edible oils and pulses, tariffs on imported items have been rationalized from time to time. The stock limits on edible oils are also maintained, to avoid hoarding.

The Government has taken trade-related measures on wheat and rice to keep domestic supplies steady and curb the rise in prices.

The impact of these measures is expected to be felt more significantly in the coming months.

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:   1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words) 2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements:  (UPSC 2021) 1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government. 2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest. 3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act. Which of the above statements is/are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only    B.  2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3     2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015) Bank rate Open Market Operations Public debt Public revenue Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only   (b) 2, 3 and 4    (c) 1 and 2     (d) 1, 3 and 4   3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall. (b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks. (c) Central bank is following an easy money policy. (d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.   4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017)  1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only      B.  1 and 2 only      C. 3 only      D. 2 and 3 only   5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only. Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis. With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021) 1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices. 2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid? A. 1 only        B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2     6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011) 1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30. 2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change. 3. The food supply chain has structural constraints. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3     7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)  A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation     8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 3 only     B.  2 only        C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3   Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

AKASH MISSILES

 

 

1. Context

 

Akash (“sky” in Sanskrit) is a mobile short-to-medium-range surface-to-air missile system developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), and currently in service with the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Indian Army.

 

2. About Akash Missiles

 

• Akash is developed to safeguard strategic locations and high-value assets by providing air defence capabilities. It is capable of tracking and engaging several airborne threats at once, including hostile aircraft, missiles, and drones.
• The project was initiated in the late 1980s under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) by DRDO. Initial testing phases, such as system evaluations and live-fire exercises, took place during the late 1990s and early 2000s.
• These were followed by comprehensive user evaluations by the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Indian Army. The IAF officially inducted the Akash system in 2014, with the Army following suit in 2015.
• Presently, both services operate several units equipped with the system. According to DRDO, Akash is approximately 96% indigenously developed, making it one of the most locally produced advanced defence systems in India.
• Over 250 companies contribute to the manufacturing and supply chain, with Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and Bharat Dynamics Limited handling key production responsibilities

 

3. Working of the Akash missile

 

 

• An integrated 3D Central Acquisition Radar monitors the skies for incoming aerial threats. As per Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), this radar delivers three-dimensional target information—including distance, direction, and height—with a detection range of up to 120 km in all directions.
• The Akash missile system is supported by an advanced multifunctional fire control radar called Rajendra, which can detect targets within an 80 km range. This radar is capable of simultaneously tracking several threats and guiding multiple missiles at once.
• The radar's accurate tracking inputs are relayed to the command and control unit, which calculates the missile’s interception path.
• The missile is launched from a mobile platform, each of which can carry up to three missiles. Weighing over 700 kilograms and powered by a ramjet engine, the Akash missile can achieve speeds up to Mach 2.5.
• As the missile nears its target, an onboard seeker activates to ensure it locks onto and follows the moving threat. The Akash system is known for its high agility in flight, allowing it to adjust course mid-air, which enhances interception success rates.
• In addition, it carries a 55 kg pre-fragmented warhead triggered by a proximity fuse. This allows the missile to inflict substantial damage even without a direct collision

 

4. Significance of Akash missile

 

 

• PRECISION: The Akash missile system is known for its high accuracy and overall effectiveness in neutralizing targets. This performance stems from a combination of its advanced guidance system, agile missile design, and rapid reaction from detection to interception. Notably, the Rajendra radar is capable of tracking low-flying targets—a task that many traditional radar systems find challenging—throughout their flight path.
• MOBILITY: The Akash system is fully mobile, with all components—including the missile launcher, command center, onboard guidance systems, C4I (command, control, communications, and intelligence) units, ground support gear, and the Rajendra radar—mounted on mobile platforms. This allows for swift transport, deployment, and repositioning by road or rail, enabling rapid adaptability in various operational scenarios.
• ELECTRONIC RESISTANCE: The Akash system is equipped with electronic counter-countermeasure (ECCM) capabilities, providing strong resistance against enemy electronic warfare tactics. According to BEL, the system is highly resistant to both active and passive jamming. While electronic countermeasures (ECM) aim to disrupt or mislead detection systems like radar or infrared sensors, ECCM technologies are specifically designed to protect against such interference and maintain operational integrity

 

5. Future of Akash missile

 

• The initial version of the Akash missile had a range of approximately 27 to 30 kilometers and was capable of reaching altitudes up to 18 kilometers. To enhance performance, the DRDO has been working on upgraded versions with improved range and capabilities.
• Akash Prime: Although it maintains the same range as the original, Akash Prime is significantly more reliable under low-temperature conditions and at higher altitudes. This version was developed in response to operational feedback from the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Army, who sought a system suitable for high-altitude defense of vital assets. It also features an indigenous active radio frequency seeker, which increases targeting precision. The missile’s first test flight took place in September 2021.
• Akash-NG (New Generation): The DRDO has also developed and tested the Akash-NG, intended for the IAF to engage highly agile airborne threats that have a low radar cross-section (RCS). RCS measures how visible an object is to radar—lower values indicate greater stealth, as seen in fifth-generation fighter jets designed with radar-evading materials and shapes.
• Akash-NG offers an extended range of up to 70 kilometers. It is lighter, more compact, and has a reduced logistics footprint. The missile is canisterized, meaning it is stored and launched from sealed containers, which enhances its shelf life and simplifies handling and deployment

 

6. Way Forward

 

In December 2020, the Union Cabinet approved the export of Akash after many friendly nations showed interest during international exhibitions. The export version, however, will be different from what is in service of the Indian armed forces

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)   1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only B.2 only C.Both 1 and 2 D.Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

Source: Indianexpress

 

WEATHER BALLOON

 

 

1. Context

 

In the wake of budget cuts by the Trump administration, a Silicon Valley startup will soon start to replace the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) weather balloons with AI-powered alternatives, which are supposed to be much cheaper

 

2. Old tradition and practice

 

• The practice of observing the upper atmosphere dates back to the 18th century. It began in 1749 when two students in Glasgow, Scotland, used kites to measure temperatures at higher altitudes.
• This approach evolved as meteorologists began attaching instruments—known as meteorographs—to kites to record atmospheric parameters such as pressure, temperature, and humidity.
• Around the 1780s, the invention of hot air balloons in France opened new possibilities. Scientists used these balloons to ascend to higher altitudes, carrying barometers, thermometers, and other tools for atmospheric research.
• Despite these advances, early balloon flights posed significant risks. A notable example occurred in 1862 when two British scientists ascended to nearly 11 kilometers and narrowly survived due to severe cold and oxygen deprivation.
• As a result, kites remained a preferred method for upper air data collection, despite their limitations. They couldn’t rise above roughly 3 kilometers (about 9,800 feet), and the data could only be analyzed after the kite was retrieved and the instruments were recovered.
• By 1899, the U.S. Weather Bureau had established 17 kite observation stations, each capable of lifting instruments up to 8,000 feet using multiple kites connected in sequence

 

3. History of weather balloon

 

• French meteorologist Léon Teisserenc de Bort was a pioneer in the use of weather balloons, beginning around 1896. He conducted hundreds of balloon launches and is credited with discovering the tropopause and the stratosphere.
• These balloon-based observations enabled scientists to gather data from altitudes that were previously inaccessible. As the balloon rose, it would eventually burst, allowing the attached meteorograph to descend gently back to Earth, safeguarding the recorded data for later retrieval.
• Despite these advances, there were still drawbacks. Meteorological data collected this way wasn’t immediately available for forecasting, and if the meteorograph wasn’t recovered, the data could be lost entirely.
• These limitations were overcome with the development of radiosondes—also known as radio-meteorographs—in the early 1930s. These compact devices, roughly the size of a coffee cup, could not only measure atmospheric conditions but also transmit the data in real time to ground stations.
• By 1937, the U.S. Weather Bureau had implemented a nationwide network of radiosonde stations, a system that remains in operation today. India has also established a similar network, comprising 56 stations across the country.
• Over the years, radiosondes have become more efficient—they’re now lighter, have longer battery life, and utilize GPS technology for improved tracking and wind measurement

 

4. Significance

 

• At present, approximately 900 weather stations across the globe release weather balloons twice daily as part of a coordinated international initiative to monitor upper atmospheric conditions. These launches occur at 0000 and 1200 UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), which translates to 5:30 AM and 5:30 PM in Indian Standard Time (IST).
• The synchronized timing of these launches enables meteorologists to compile a global snapshot of atmospheric conditions, which is vital for accurate weather prediction.
• Modern weather balloons are typically made from latex and inflated with helium. They can ascend as high as 115,000 feet (about 35 kilometers), with each flight lasting up to two hours. A radiosonde is attached roughly 66 feet below the balloon, collecting and transmitting atmospheric data.
• These measurements are stored in a global database and are accessible to researchers worldwide. The data is invaluable for studying weather systems, climate change, and phenomena like El Niño.
• Despite advancements in satellite technology, weather balloons remain crucial. While satellites provide broad overviews and surface data, balloons offer detailed insight into the atmospheric layer where most weather events occur.
• They supply essential information about temperature and humidity in the lower atmosphere—factors that significantly influence storm development and intensity. As former U.S. National Weather Service Director Elbert “Joe” noted in an interview with EuroNews, this data is key to determining the potential for and severity of extreme weather.
• Furthermore, radiosonde readings are instrumental in validating and calibrating satellite-derived measurements, ensuring their accuracy.
• Due to this importance, the decision by NOAA to reduce weather balloon launches has sparked global concern among experts, who fear it may undermine the quality of weather forecasts

5. Way Forward

 

When Russia tried to cut its radiosonde launches in half, between January 2015 and April 2015, European forecasters saw a decline in their model’s forecast quality, according to a report by American Meteorological Society

 

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography – Physical, Social, Economic geography of India and the World. For Mains:  GS-I, Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclones. etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

 

Source: Indianexpress