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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 12 MAY 2025

SOUTHWEST MONSOON

 
 
1. Context
The southwest monsoon is likely to reach Kerala on May 27, earlier than the usual date of June 1, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said
 
2. What is the southwest monsoon?
 
  • The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
  • The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
  • The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
  • The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
  • The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
  • The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon

Mechanism:

  • High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
  • Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
  • Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
The monsoon trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending from the heat low over Pakistan and northwestern India to the Bay of Bengal. It influences the distribution and intensity of the monsoon rains.
 
3. What are easterly and westerly winds?
 
Easterly Winds
 
  • Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
  • Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
  • Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Characteristics:

  • Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
  • Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
  • Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
Westerly Winds
 
  • Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
  • Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
  • They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
  • The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems

Characteristics:

  • Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
  • Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
  • Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
 
 
4.How does monsoon occur in India?

Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.

Here's a concise explanation of the process:

  • Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
  • Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
  • Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
  • Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
  • Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
  • Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
 
5.What are the conditions that determine the onset of monsoon?
 
  • The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
  • Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
  • The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
  • The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
  • The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
  • Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
6.What is the impact of La-Nina and El Nino on monsoon?
 
La Niña and El Niño, both phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, have significant impacts on the monsoon patterns around the world.
 
Here’s how each affects the monsoon:
El Niño
  • El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
  • The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
  •  El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
  • Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
La Niña
  • La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
  • The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
  • La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
  • La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
 
7.Way Forward
 
The intermittent development of a wind shear zone — where winds move with different velocities and directions — along latitudes 20 ° N between central and peninsular India
 
 
 
For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
 
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
 
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
  • The duration of the monsoon indeed decreases from southern India to northern India. The southern part of India experiences the monsoon earlier and for a longer duration compared to the northern part.
  • The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west. The eastern part of the northern plains receives more rainfall compared to the western part, largely due to the influence of the Bay of Bengal branch of the Southwest Monsoon.
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 

COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT (CAQM)

 
 
1. Context
 

The Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) has directed Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh to set up a ‘Parali Protection Force’ at district and block levels to prevent incidents of stubble burning

2. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
 
  • The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region (NCR) and nearby areas was initially established through an ordinance in 2020, which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament in 2021.
  • Its primary mandate is to enhance coordination, conduct research, identify issues, and address challenges related to air quality and associated concerns.
  • At its inception, the CAQM comprised 15 members, including current and former officials from the Ministry of Environment and other Union government departments, along with representatives from various State governments, NGOs, and other organizations. Currently, the commission, led by Rajesh Verma, has expanded to 27 members.
  • The CAQM succeeded the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA), which was created by the Supreme Court in 1998. Unlike the CAQM, the EPCA lacked statutory authority, which experts criticized as limiting its ability to enforce compliance among defiant agencies.
  • Nevertheless, several initiatives now overseen by the CAQM, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)—a framework of temporary emergency measures to combat air pollution—were originally implemented under the EPCA's guidance
 
 
Powers of CAQM
 
The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, empowers the CAQM to undertake any necessary measures, issue directives, and address grievances aimed at safeguarding and enhancing air quality in the NCR and surrounding regions. According to Section 14 of the Act, the commission is authorized to take strict action against officials who fail to comply with its directives
 
 
3. Supreme Court on CAQM
 
  • The Supreme Court recently criticized the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for delays in enforcing stricter anti-pollution measures as Delhi's air quality worsened.
  • Despite the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching hazardous levels, the CAQM postponed the implementation of Stage 4 measures under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), prompting the Court to question the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis.
  • The justices emphasized that such measures should be triggered as soon as AQI levels indicate severe pollution to prevent further deterioration.
  • The Court also highlighted systemic failures, including inadequate action against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, and criticized the CAQM for focusing on meetings without concrete enforcement of rules.
  • It warned against scaling down measures prematurely and stressed the need for stricter penalties and immediate action to curb pollution sources effectively
 
4. Challenges
 
  • Although the CAQM formulates strategies and coordinates with various agencies, the actual implementation of these measures rests with the respective agencies.
  • A CAQM official noted that the commission has significantly improved coordination and planning efforts.
  • For instance, while paddy stubble burning—a major contributor to severe air pollution—occurs primarily in October and November, discussions with State officials begin as early as February and continue throughout the season.
  • In 2022, the CAQM collaborated with Punjab and Haryana to develop action plans for managing stubble burning, which are reviewed and updated annually.
5. Way Forward
 
Discussing the challenges faced, the official acknowledged that while the commission has focused heavily on tackling stubble burning in the past, there is now a shift towards addressing multiple pollution sources. Moving forward, greater emphasis will be placed on controlling dust and vehicular emissions alongside agricultural pollution
 
For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA).
For Mains:
1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words). 
 
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

1. Context

With the Union Cabinet greenlighting caste enumeration in the next Census, the doors have now been thrown open for the House Panel on Welfare of Other Backward Classes to begin deliberations on the way ahead

2. About the sub-categorization of OBCs

  • The concept of sub-categorization of OBCs involves creating sub-groups within the larger OBC category for reservation purposes.
  • Currently, OBCs are granted 27% reservation in jobs and education under the central government.
  • However, there has been a debate over the equitable distribution of these benefits among the various OBC communities.
  • Some argue that a few affluent communities within the Central List of OBCs have disproportionately secured the majority of the reservation benefits.
  • Creating sub-categories aims to ensure a fairer distribution of representation among all OBC communities.

3. The Rohini Commission's Brief

  1. To examine the extent of inequitable distribution of reservation benefits among the OBC castes or communities included in the Central List.
  2. To devise a scientific approach for sub-categorization within the OBCs, including defining the mechanism, criteria, norms, and parameters.
  3. To identify respective castes, communities, sub-castes, or synonyms in the Central List of OBCs and classify them into their respective sub-categories.
  4. To study the Central List of OBCs and rectify any repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies, and errors.
  • The Commission's progress has faced various challenges, including the absence of data on the population of different communities to compare their representation in jobs and education.
  • Initially, the Commission had requested an all-India survey to estimate the caste-wise population of OBCs but later decided against it.
  • Additionally, the government has remained silent on the collection of OBC data in the Census, despite demands from OBC groups.

4. The Extent of OBC Recruitment in Central Jobs

  • As part of its findings, the Commission analyzed data from the preceding five years on OBC quota-based central jobs and admissions to central higher education institutions.
  • It revealed that a disproportionate number of jobs and educational seats went to a small fraction of OBC sub-castes, with 37% of the total OBC communities having no representation in jobs and educational institutions.
  • Regarding OBC representation in central jobs, as of March 17, the data showed that 20.26% of Group A to Group C employees were OBCs.
  • However, the representation drops to 16.88% in Group A, where the reservation for OBCs is 27%.
Image Source: The Indian Express

5. The Way Forward

  • Despite the challenges faced, the Commission has made significant progress, including drafting a report on sub-categorization.
  • However, the final report is yet to be submitted. The extended tenure will provide the Commission with additional time to address the complexities of OBC sub-categorization and propose measures to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among all OBC communities.
For Prelims: Rohini Commission, OBCs, Central List
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the role of the government in addressing the demand for the enumeration of OBCs in the Census and its potential impact on OBC representation and welfare." (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Who was appointed as the head of the OBC Sub-categorisation Commission?
(Maharashtra Talathi 2019) 
A. Justice Geeta Mittal
B. Justice Manjula Chellur
C. Justice Tahilramani
D. Justice G. Rohini
 
Answer: D
 
2. Which of the following pairs of list and contents is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CAPF 2019) 
1. State list                     Public health and sanitation
2. Union list                  Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens
3. Concurrent list          Legal, medical and other
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only             B. 1, 2 and 3          C.  2 and 3 only            D.  3 only
 
Answer: B
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

SELF DEFENCE CLAUSE IN GLOBAL LAW

 
 
1. Context
 
On May 10, India and Pakistan agreed to halt “all firing and military action” following days of escalating tensions between the two nuclear-armed neighbours. The announcement came after the Indian armed forces conducted 24 precision strikes on May 7, targeting terrorist infrastructure in Pakistan and Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir, in response to the Pahalgam massacre that left 26 dead. While India’s Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri described the strikes as “measured and non-escalatory,” Pakistan denounced them as a “blatant act of war” and alleged civilian casualties
 
2. What does the right to self-defence entail?
 
  • Article 51 of the United Nations Charter provides a notable exception to the general ban on the use of force set out in Article 2(4), which prohibits nations from using or threatening force against another state's sovereignty or territorial integrity.
  • Under Article 51, countries may resort to force only in self-defence after being subjected to an armed attack.
  • While the Foreign Secretary did not directly reference Article 51, his framing of the missile strikes as a reaction to the Pahalgam terrorist incident suggests a reliance on this legal justification.
  • Nonetheless, this self-defence right is subject to certain conditions. Specifically, Article 51 requires that any defensive action be promptly reported to the UN Security Council, which is then responsible for taking measures to preserve or reestablish international peace and stability
 
3. Can it be applied to non-members?
 
 
  • The United Nations Charter primarily regulates the actions of states and, by extension, the use of force by or on behalf of states. After the 9/11 attacks, the involvement of non-state actors (NSAs) in armed conflicts led some countries—particularly the United States—to contend that Article 51's self-defence provisions should also apply to armed responses against groups such as al-Qaeda and the Islamic State (IS).
  • Despite this interpretation, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has consistently adopted a narrower view. In rulings such as Nicaragua v. United States (1986) and Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (2005), the ICJ determined that actions by NSAs qualify as armed attacks under Article 51 only when they are conducted by, or with the backing of, a state.
  • Thus, for self-defence claims under international law to be valid, a clear link to a state is required. India’s missile strikes, as presented in the Foreign Secretary’s remarks, do not appear to be framed within this legal context
 
4. Unwilling or unable doctrine
 
 
  • The "unwilling or unable" doctrine is a controversial concept in international law that seeks to justify the use of force in self-defence against non-state actors (such as terrorist groups) operating from within the territory of another sovereign state.
  • Traditionally, international law—particularly Article 51 of the UN Charter—allows a state to use force in self-defence only in response to an armed attack and usually only when that attack is attributable to another state.
  • However, the rise of non-state actors like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, which often operate independently from any government but still pose significant threats, has challenged this traditional framework.
  • According to the “unwilling or unable” doctrine, if a state (State A) is attacked or threatened by a non-state actor based in another state (State B), and if State B is either unwilling or unable to take effective action to eliminate the threat posed by that group, then State A may lawfully use force in self-defence within State B’s territory—even without its consent.
  • The core idea is that the defending state does not lose its right to self-defence simply because the threat emanates from a country that fails to control hostile actors within its borders.
  • This doctrine has been most notably promoted by the United States, especially after the 9/11 attacks. It was used to justify operations like the 2011 raid that killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan and the 2014 airstrikes in Syria against ISIS.
  • Supporters argue that the doctrine reflects the reality of modern threats and is necessary to protect national security when host states are incapable or unwilling to act.
  • However, the doctrine remains legally contested. Critics, including countries like Russia, China, and Mexico, argue that it undermines state sovereignty and violates the UN Charter’s prohibition on the use of force.
  • Moreover, many legal scholars assert that the doctrine has not yet achieved the level of widespread state practice and legal acceptance (known as opinio juris) required to become part of customary international law.
  • In short, the “unwilling or unable” doctrine represents an attempt to adapt self-defence law to contemporary security challenges, but it continues to face significant legal and political opposition on the international stage
 
 
5. Requirement of proportionality
 
 
  • Military actions taken under Article 51 must adhere to the legal principles of necessity and proportionality. The requirement of necessity is generally considered met when the state from which non-state actors operate is either unwilling or incapable of addressing the threat.
  • However, the 2010 Leiden Policy Recommendations on Counter-Terrorism and International Law clarify that using force against the host state’s military or infrastructure is only justified in rare and exceptional situations—specifically, when the host state is found to be actively aiding the terrorist groups.
  • Regarding proportionality, there is a divide in interpretation. A stricter approach holds that the use of force should be confined to what is needed to halt an immediate attack.
  • In contrast, a more expansive understanding allows for military action aimed not only at stopping current threats but also at preventing future attacks, provided those attacks can reasonably be anticipated based on the circumstances
 
6. Way Forward
 
Should the ceasefire between India and Pakistan collapse, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) has the authority to issue a resolution demanding an immediate end to the violence. It could also follow up with additional resolutions to respond to continued breaches, potentially including sanctions or the deployment of peacekeeping or military forces. However, the adoption of these measures would largely depend on the political agendas of the Council’s five permanent members, all of whom possess veto power that can block any proposed action
 
 
For Prelims: United Nations Security Council (UNSC), International Court of Justice (ICJ)
 
For Mains: GS II -Unwilling or unable" doctrine 
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 
 

SAFE HARBOUR

 
 
1. Context
 
In written submissions to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Communication and Information Technology, the Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting said that it is reconsidering the concept of safe harbour for social media platforms, to combat the issue of “fake news” online
 
2. What is Safe Harbour?
 
  • The concept of safe harbour in law offers legal protection to websites that host user-generated content, shielding them from liability for unlawful material posted by third parties.
  • Introduced during the early development of the internet, it was designed to foster online innovation and prevent platform operators from being held accountable for content they neither created nor controlled.
  • This legal area is often referred to as intermediary liability, where safe harbour acts as a safeguard, generally exempting platforms from criminal responsibility for third-party content they host.
  • In the United States, these protections are embedded in Section 230 of the Communications Act of 1934, which was amended in 1996 to include these provisions. India has a comparable legal framework in Section 79 of the Information Technology Act, 2000, which similarly grants immunity to intermediaries under certain conditions.
  • However, these protections are conditional. Under Indian law, if an intermediary is made aware of illegal content—interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean either a court directive or official government notice—they must act promptly to remove it. Failing to do so results in the loss of their legal shield under Section 79.
  • Without the backing of safe harbour laws, digital platforms could face severe repercussions for content uploaded by users. A notable example occurred in 2004, when the head of eBay India was arrested after a user listed a disk containing child sexual abuse material for sale on the site
 
3. Intermediary liability protections
 
  • Although safe harbour comes with certain conditions, the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 introduced further requirements for digital platforms to maintain their protection from intermediary liability.
  • Under these rules, social media companies must appoint both a nodal contact person and a grievance officer based in India. They are also obligated to regularly publish transparency reports detailing user complaints and the actions taken in response.
  • Several aspects of the IT Rules have faced legal challenges over the past few years. For instance, in 2023, the government introduced amendments to the rules, granting the Press Information Bureau’s fact-checking unit the authority to label content as “fake news.”
  • Under this provision, platforms could lose their safe harbour status if they failed to take down such flagged content.
  • This amendment was quickly contested in court, notably by comedian Kunal Kamra, who filed a petition in the Bombay High Court. The petitioners argued that the government had overstepped its mandate by empowering a fact-checking body to act as a judge of truth, thereby pressuring social media platforms to remove content without issuing formal notices to users.
  • The Bombay High Court ruled in favor of Kamra, though the government has appealed the decision
 
4. Amending the safe harbour clause
 
  • The Indian government has criticized international social media companies for allegedly violating local regulations and responding too slowly to content removal requests. Prior to Elon Musk’s acquisition of Twitter (now called X), the platform frequently clashed with the central government over directives to restrict access to certain user content.
  • Even under Musk’s ownership, X has continued to challenge the government's authority to block or remove content without informing users, taking the matter to the Karnataka High Court.
  • In its efforts to push for stricter platform accountability, the Union government has proposed revisions to the safe harbour framework, aiming to compel tech companies to play a more active role in regulating not only misinformation but also AI-generated deepfakes, online scams, and similar threats.
  • In the United States, Section 230 of the Communications Act has come under scrutiny from both political sides—President Joe Biden’s administration has advocated scaling back these protections to hold platforms more accountable for extremist content, while former President Donald Trump criticized the law over claims of bias against conservative viewpoints
 
5. Way Forward
 
 
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has indicated that it would draft a Digital India Act (DIA) that would incorporate these changes, but the outlines of how safe harbour would change under this proposed law have not yet been revealed. Moreover, no DIA draft law has been released yet
 
 
 
For Prelims: Cyber Crime, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre,  National Cybercrime Reporting Portal, Budapest Convention, Global Cybersecurity Index, International Telecommunication union
For Mains: 
1. India witnesses a high number of cybercrimes originating from Southeast Asia. Analyze the challenges this poses for Indian Law Enforcement Agencies and suggest measures to improve cross-border cooperation in tackling cybercrime. (250 words)
2. What are the key functions of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)? Critically evaluate its effectiveness in combating cybercrime in India. (250 words)
3. The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) devices introduces new vulnerabilities in cyberspace. Analyze the cybersecurity challenges posed by IoT and suggest measures to mitigate these risks. (250 words)
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (UPSC 2020)
1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one's computer
2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so
3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion
4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A.1, 2 and 4 only  B.1, 3 and 4 only  C.2 and 3 only   D.1, 2, 3 and 4
 
2. Global Cyber Security Index (GCI) 2020 is released by which of the following organizations? (RRB Clerk Mains 2021)
A. World Bank
B. United Nations Development Programme
C. International Telecommunication Union
D. World Economic Forum
E. None of these
Answers: 1-D, 2-C
 
Source: The Hindu
 

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (TFR)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), the average number of children born to women over their lifetime, in the country has remained at 2.0 in 2021, the same as in 2020, shows the Sample Registration System (SRS) report for 2021 released by the Registrar-General of India (RGI)
 

2. About the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a key demographic indicator that helps us understand the average number of children a woman in a specific population will have during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns persist. It's different from the crude birth rate, which simply measures the number of births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. 

What it measures

  • The average number of children a woman will have throughout her reproductive lifespan.
  • It considers age-specific fertility rates, which means it takes into account the different birth rates at different ages within the population.
  • Provides a longer-term perspective on population dynamics compared to the crude birth rate.

Significance

  • Helps assess population growth trends and predict future population size.
  • Informs policy decisions related to education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • Understanding TFR is crucial for analyzing the potential demographic dividend, which refers to the economic and social benefits that can arise from a large working-age population due to declining fertility rates.

Calculation

  • Summing the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for all fertile age groups (typically 15-49 years) and multiplying by five.
  • ASFRs represent the average number of births per 1,000 women in a specific age group.

Key TFR levels

  • Replacement fertility rate: Around 2.1 children per woman, ensures population stability without growth or decline due to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • TFR below replacement: Indicates a declining population, with potential implications for workforce size and economic growth.
  • TFR above replacement: Leads to population growth, requiring investments in infrastructure and resources to support the growing population.
 

3. What does the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 mean?

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 means that, on average, each woman in the population is expected to give birth to two children over her reproductive lifetime. This value represents the replacement level of fertility, where each generation replaces itself in the population. When the TFR is around 2.0, it indicates that the population is stable, with births balancing deaths over time.

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 indicates several key things

  • Average Children per Woman: In that specific population, on average, a woman will have two children during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns remain unchanged. This means that each generation of women is replacing itself, without population growth or decline due solely to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • Replacement Fertility Rate: A TFR of 2.0 is often referred to as the replacement fertility rate. This is because it signifies the level of fertility needed to maintain a stable population size over time, considering only births and deaths. However, it's important to note that the exact replacement level can vary slightly depending on mortality rates, particularly child mortality.
  • Demographic Transition: A TFR of 2.0 suggests that the population is likely in the later stages of the demographic transition. This transition involves a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. In this stage, populations typically experience a decline in fertility, followed by a decline in mortality, leading to a stabilization of population size.
  • Global Context: While 2.0 is the replacement fertility rate, the global average TFR is currently around 2.3, indicating slight population growth. However, many developed countries have TFRs below replacement level, which can lead to an ageing population and potential challenges for social security systems and workforce size.
  • Policy Implications: Understanding the TFR is crucial for policymakers in various areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development. A TFR below replacement may necessitate policies encouraging childbirth or attracting immigration to address potential workforce shortages. Conversely, a high TFR might require investments in infrastructure and resources to support a growing population.

 

4. What is the Replacement Fertility Rate?

The Replacement Fertility Rate (RFR) is the level of fertility required to maintain a stable population size in a given area, considering only births and deaths (excluding migration). This means that each generation of women has just enough daughters to replace themselves and their mothers in the population.

Key Points about RFR

  • Typically around 2.1 children per woman This number varies slightly depending on a country's mortality rates, especially child mortality rates. Higher child mortality necessitates slightly higher fertility to ensure replacement.
  • When the TFR matches the RFR, the population neither grows nor declines due to births and deaths.
  • Reaching RFR suggests a population in the later stages of the demographic transition, characterized by declining birth and death rates.
  • Though the global average TFR is 2.3 (slightly above RFR), many developed countries have TFRs below RFR, leading to ageing populations.

Significance of RFR

  • Understanding RFR helps policymakers formulate effective policies in areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • TFR below RFR may require policies to encourage childbirth or attract immigration to address potential workforce shortages and support ageing populations. Conversely, a high TFR might necessitate investments in infrastructure and resources to sustain a growing population.
  • Analyzing TFR about RFR offers insights into potential population growth or decline, aiding in planning and resource allocation.

 

5. How is the Total Fertility Rate calculated?

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is calculated by considering the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) of a population. 

  1. Age-specific fertility Rates (ASFRs) represent the average number of births per 1,000 women within a specific age group. Typically, ASFRs are calculated for five-year age groups ranging from 15-49 years, covering the typical childbearing years for women. Data for calculating ASFRs usually comes from population censuses or demographic surveys.
  2. Once you have the ASFRs for each age group, you need to sum them all up. This gives you the total number of births expected per 1,000 women across all fertile age groups.
  3. Since age groups may have different sizes, simply summing ASFRs wouldn't be entirely accurate. To account for this, the sum is multiplied by the average number of women in each age group. This ensures the TFR reflects the fertility rates across all age groups proportionally.
  4. Often, instead of using the actual number of women in each age group, a standard factor of "5" is used for convenience. This assumes that each age group has roughly the same number of women, which is a reasonable approximation for many populations.

Therefore, the TFR formula becomes: TFR = (Sum of ASFRs across all age groups) * 5

Example:

Imagine a hypothetical population with the following ASFRs:

  • 15-19 years: 30 births per 1,000 women
  • 20-24 years: 80 births per 1,000 women
  • 25-29 years: 120 births per 1,000 women
  • 30-34 years: 90 births per 1,000 women
  • 35-39 years: 50 births per 1,000 women
  • 40-44 years: 20 births per 1,000 women
  • 45-49 years: 10 births per 1,000 women

Using the formula:

  • TFR = (30 + 80 + 120 + 90 + 50 + 20 + 10) * 5
  • TFR = 400 * 5
  • TFR = 2000 births per 1,000 women

Therefore, in this example, the TFR is 2.0, indicating that on average, a woman in this population would have 2 children during her lifetime based on the current age-specific fertility rates.

 

6. The difference between birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

While both birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) measure fertility within a population, they have key differences that offer distinct insights:

Features Birth Rate Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Definition Number of births per 1,000 people in a year Average number of children per woman throughout her life
Focus Current fertility level Long-term fertility pattern
Data Requires population size and number of births Requires age-specific fertility rates
Calculation Simple division Summing and adjusting age-specific fertility rates
Advantages Easy to understand, tracks short-term trends Considers age structure, reflects future potential, informs policy
Limitations Ignores age structure, limited future insight, misleading in fluctuating populations
 

Requires complex data, less intuitive, may not perfectly predict future
 
 

7. About demographic dividend

A demographic dividend refers to the potential economic and social benefits that can arise when a large share of the population is in the working-age (typically 15-64 years) compared to the dependent populations (children and elderly). This shift in population structure is often caused by a decline in fertility rates without a corresponding decline in mortality rates, leading to a "bulge" in the working-age population.

Key Features

  • A larger working-age population translates to a larger pool of available labour, potentially boosting economic growth and productivity.
  • The ratio of dependents (children and elderly) to the working-age population decreases, leading to increased savings and investment as fewer resources are needed to support dependents.
  • The potential for increased investments in education and healthcare due to a smaller dependent population, leading to a more skilled and healthy workforce.

Conditions for a Dividend

  • A significant and sustained decline in fertility rates is crucial for the demographic dividend to occur.
  • The benefits of a demographic dividend can only be realized if the working-age population is adequately educated, skilled, and healthy.
  • Expanding job opportunities is essential to absorb the growing workforce and prevent unemployment.

Challenges and Considerations

  • The demographic dividend may not be evenly distributed across regions or social groups, potentially leading to inequalities.
  • Governments and businesses need to adapt policies and infrastructure to accommodate the changing population structure.
  • Ensuring social security and healthcare for the ageing population is crucial to sustain the benefits of the dividend.

Examples

  • Several East Asian countries, like China and South Korea, experienced significant economic growth due to their demographic dividends in the latter half of the 20th century.
  • India is currently experiencing a demographic transition with a declining fertility rate, creating the potential for a future dividend. However, realizing this potential requires investments in education, healthcare, and job creation.
 
8. The Way Forward
 
Understanding the TFR and its implications is crucial for India's future development. By analyzing population dynamics and formulating data-driven policies, the country can harness the potential of its demographic transition and achieve the Viksit Bharat goals sustainably and inclusively.
 
 
For Prelims: Viksit Bharat, Population control goal, Total Fertility Rate, Replacement Fertility Rate
 
For Mains: 
1. Critically analyze the significance of Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in understanding population dynamics and formulating development policies in India. Discuss the potential challenges and opportunities associated with India's projected demographic transition. (250 Words)
2. What are the potential security implications of India's changing population structure? How can these be addressed through proactive policy measures? (250 Words)
3. Imagine you are part of the committee formed by the Finance Minister to study India's population growth. What key recommendations would you propose, considering both demographic trends and the aspirations of a Vikasit Bharat? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. The total fertility rate is: (HPPSC GS 2018) (MPSC 2015)
 
A. The birth of women divided by the total female population
B. The number of births divided by the total population
C. The number of children a woman will likely bear in her lifetime
D. The births to women of a given age divided by the total number of women at that age
Answer: C
 
Mains
 
1. "Empowering women is the key to control the population growth.’’ Discuss. (UPSC 2019)
2. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India. (UPSC 2013)
3. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC 2021)
4. Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC 2020)
 
 Source: The Indian Express
 

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)

 
 
1. Context
Since October 2, 2024, Kerala has been aggressively advocating its latest campaign — ‘Vruthi’. Meaning cleanliness of the body and mind, this campaign has involved everyone from all levels, from the Chief Minister and Malayalam film stars to school children, local self-government representatives, bureaucrats, and sanitation workers. In a five-day conclave, titled ‘Vruthi 2025: The Clean Kerala Conclave’ held at Thiruvananthapuram recently, in which around 25,000 people participated, it was stated by the Local Self-Government Minister that the State had reached formidable success in waste collection from houses — around 75% of houses have been reached, which was just 40% till a year back.
 
2. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)

Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are institutions of local self-governance that manage the affairs of urban areas, such as cities and towns. They play a crucial role in the administration and development of urban areas. ULBs are established to ensure efficient delivery of civic amenities and services to urban residents. Here are the key aspects of Urban Local Bodies:

  • Types of Urban Local Bodies:

    • Municipal Corporations: These are established in larger urban areas with significant populations and are responsible for providing a wide range of services. They have a Mayor, a municipal commissioner, and elected representatives. Examples include the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai and the Delhi Municipal Corporation.
    • Municipal Councils: These are set up in medium-sized urban areas. They provide a narrower range of services compared to municipal corporations and are headed by a Chairperson. Examples include the Mysore City Municipal Council.
    • Nagar Panchayats: These are found in smaller urban areas or transitional areas that are in the process of becoming urbanized. They are smaller than municipal councils and serve as a basic unit of local governance.
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) levy user fees or SWM cess as per the provisions of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. According to these guidelines, ULBs must collect user fees/cess for SWM services provisions provided. ULBs typically charge about ₹30-50 per month as SWM cess, which is collected along with property tax. ULBs are now considering revising these rates and imposing higher charges on bulk waste generators to meet a portion of the costs incurred in providing SWM services
 
3. What are the Charges?
  • Providing Solid Waste Management (SWM) services is a complex and resource-intensive task. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) typically allocate around 80% of their workforce and up to 50% of their annual budgets to deliver SWM services to city residents.
  • In a city like Bangalore, each urban resident generates approximately 0.6 kg of waste per day, amounting to 0.2 tonnes per person annually. Overall, Bangalore produces about 5,000 tonnes of solid waste daily. Managing this volume requires around 5,000 door-to-door waste collection vehicles, 600 compactors, and roughly 20,000 sanitation workers (Paurakarmikas).
  • SWM services consist of four main components: collection, transportation, processing, and disposal. ULBs often combine collection and transportation into one package, and processing and disposal into another. Collection and transportation are particularly resource and labor-intensive, consuming about 85-90% of the SWM budget, while only 10-15% is allocated to processing and disposal of waste
4. Solid Waste Mechanism in India
 

Solid Waste Management (SWM) in India involves a systematic approach to managing the collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of waste generated in urban areas. Here is an overview of the SWM mechanism in India:

Regulatory Framework

India's SWM practices are governed by several key regulations:

  • Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules provide comprehensive guidelines for urban local bodies (ULBs) on managing solid waste, emphasizing segregation at source, decentralized processing, and safe disposal.
  • Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules regulate the use, manufacture, and recycling of plastic products.
  • Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016: These rules address the management and handling of hazardous waste.

Components of SWM

Collection

  • Door-to-Door Collection: ULBs often implement door-to-door waste collection systems to ensure all household waste is collected efficiently.
  • Segregation at Source: Residents are encouraged to segregate waste into biodegradable (wet) and non-biodegradable (dry) categories.
  • Community Bins and Collection Points: Strategically placed bins and collection points are used in areas where door-to-door collection is not feasible.

Transportation

  • Primary Collection Vehicles: These include handcarts, auto tippers, and tricycles used for door-to-door collection.
  • Secondary Collection Vehicles: Larger vehicles like compactors and trucks transport waste from collection points to processing facilities.

Processing

  • Composting: Biodegradable waste is processed into compost, which can be used as organic fertilizer.
  • Vermiculture: Organic waste is converted into vermicompost using earthworms.
  • Recycling: Dry waste such as plastics, paper, and metals are sorted and sent to recycling units.

Disposal

  • Sanitary Landfills: Engineered landfills are designed to safely dispose of residual waste while minimizing environmental impact.
  • Waste-to-Energy Plants: These facilities convert non-recyclable waste into energy through incineration or other processes.
5. Government Initiatives 
  • Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission): Launched in 2014, this mission aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage and promote cleanliness, including effective SWM.
  • Smart Cities Mission: Focuses on sustainable and inclusive development, including modernizing urban infrastructure for better SWM.
  • Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Aims to provide basic services (e.g., water supply, sewerage) to households and build amenities in cities, promoting sustainable urban development, including SWM
6. What are the challenges?
 
  • Solid waste in Indian cities comprises approximately 55-60% wet biodegradable material and 40-45% non-biodegradable material.
  • Only about 1-2% of the dry waste is recyclable, with the majority being non-recyclable and non-biodegradable.
  • While 55% of the wet waste has the potential to be converted into organic compost or biogas, the actual yield is as low as 10-12%, making these processes financially unfeasible.
  • Typically, the operational revenue from waste processing facilities covers only 35-40% of operational expenses, with the remainder subsidized by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
  • In addition to financial constraints, ULBs encounter several challenges in Solid Waste Management (SWM) services.
  • These include managing open dumping sites and drains, preventing littering, dealing with seasonal variations in waste generation, and conducting sweeping operations.
  • Disposing of non-compostable and non-recyclable dry waste, such as single-use plastics, textile waste, and inert materials, is costly because these materials must be transported to cement factories or waste-to-energy projects located 400-500 km from cities.
  • In large cities like Bangalore, about 15% of the budget is allocated to SWM—around ₹1,643 crore out of a total ₹11,163 crore budget—while the revenue from SWM services is minimal, at approximately ₹20 lakh per year.
  • Smaller cities may spend up to 50% of their budgets on SWM but also generate negligible revenue. As a result, ULBs impose an SWM cess to cover a portion of these costs
7.Way Forward
 
Although collection and transportation of waste generate no revenue, several strategies can reduce overall expenditure on SWM and lower user charges. These are segregation of waste at source, reducing single-use plastic, decentralised composting initiatives, Information, Education and Awareness (IEC) to prevent open littering, and asking bulk waste generators to process their own waste.
 
 
 
Source: The Hindu
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