VIRGINIA NORWOOD

1. Context

2. Who was Virginia Norwood?

• Virginia Tower was born on Jan. 8, 1927, in Fort Totten, New York, to John Vogler and Eleanore (Monroe) Tower.
• Eleanore Tower was a homemaker and also a linguist who spoke nine languages. John Tower was a decorated Army colonel with a master’s degree in physics who eventually taught at Carnegie Tech (now Carnegie Mellon University).
• He encouraged Virginia to study math and physics and made her first slide rule with her when she was 9. As a military family, they moved frequently, living in Panama, Oklahoma, and Bermuda, among other places.
• Virginia attended five high different high schools before graduating as the salutatorian of Germantown High School in Philadelphia.
• A day after graduating in 1947, she married Lawrence Norwood, a graduate student who had been her calculus instructor during her third semester. They had three children.
• She and her husband were hired by the U.S. Army Signal Corps Laboratories in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey.
• She worked in the weather radar division, where she designed a radar reflector for weather balloons that could detect previously untraceable winds at 100,000 feet.
• She later moved to an antenna group, working on antennas that used microwaves, and designed one that remains classified.
• Norwood designed the transmitter and receiver for the world’s first communications satellite in her new role.
• A couple of years later, NASA sent a lander called Surveyor to the moon to scout possible landing locations for astronauts. Norwood’s team designed the equipment the lander used to communicate with ground control.

3. Virginia's Norwood Contribution to Satellite Imaging

• The Landsat satellites, speeding 438 miles above the surface, orbit the Earth every 99 minutes and have captured a complete image of the planet every 16 days since 1972.
• These images have provided powerful visual evidence of climate change, deforestation, and other shifts affecting the planet’s well-being.
• Norwood, a physicist, was the person primarily responsible for designing and championing the scanner that made the program possible.
• NASA has called her "the mother of Landsat". At the dawn of the era of space exploration in the 1950s and 60s, she was working at Hughes Aircraft Co., developing instruments.
• One of a small group of women in a male-dominated industry, she stood out more for her acumen.
• In the late 1960s, after NASA's lunar missions sent back spectacular pictures of Earth, the director of the Geological Survey thought that photographs of the planet from space could help the agency manage land resources.
• The agency would partner with NASA, which would send satellites into space to take the pictures.
• Norwood, who was part of an advanced design group in Hughes's space and communications division, canvasses scientists who specialized in agriculture, meteorology, pollution, and geology.
• She concluded that a scanner that recorded multiple spectra of light and energy, like one that had been used for local agricultural observations, could be modified for the planetary project that the Geological Survey and NASA had in mind.

4. How were these techniques used by NASA?

• The Geological Survey and NASA planned to use a giant three-camera system designed by RCA, based on television tube technology, that had been used to map the moon.
• The bulk of the 4,000-pound payload on NASA’s first Landsat satellite was reserved for the RCA equipment.
• Norwood and Hughes were told that their multispectral scanner system, or MSS, could be included if it weighed no more than 100 pounds.
• Norwood had to scale, back her scanner to record just four bands of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum instead of seven, as she had planned.
• The scanner also had to be high precision. In her first design, each pixel represented 80 meters.

5. About Landsat Satellite

• The first Landsat blasted into space on July 23, 1972. Two days later, the scanner sent back the first images, of the Ouachita Mountains in Oklahoma; they were astounding.
• The RCA system was supposed to be the primary recording instrument aboard the satellite, and the MSS was a secondary experiment.
• The MSS proved not only better but also more reliable. Two weeks after liftoff, power surges in the RCA camera-based system endangered the satellite and the camera had to be shut down.
• Over the next 50 years, new Landsat satellites replaced earlier ones. Norwood oversaw the development of Landsat 2, 3, 4, and 5.
• Currently, Landsat 8 and 9 are orbiting the Earth, and NASA plans to launch Landsat 10 in 2030.
• Each generation of the satellite has added more imaging capabilities but is always based on Norwood’s original concept.
• The Landsat program has mapped changes in the planet brought on by climate change and by Human actions.
• They include the near disappearance of the Aral Sea between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the shrinking of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, the evolving shape of the Mississippi Delta, and the deforestation and increasing agricultural use of land in Turkey and Brazil.

Image Source: NASA

BAISAKI FESTIVAL 2023

 

 

 

1.Background

• The Sikh community celebrated Baisakhi with religious fervour and traditional enthusiasm across Jammu and Kashmir 
• The Sikh community with traditional and religious ceremonies celebrated the arrival of spring
• The festival marks the beginning of the solar year, and for the farming community of Punjab, it marks the time for the harvest of Rabi crops
• During Baisakhi, Bajan Keertans were performed at Gurdwaras across Kashmir. The biggest function was held at Chatti Patshahi, Kathi Darwaza, and Rainawari in downtown

2. Significance of Baisakhi Festival 

• As per the Hindu Calender, this day is observed on the first day of Vaisakh month (April - May) every year. 
• Baisakhi is the most famous festival celebrated by Sikh Community people, this festival is observed either on 13th or 14th every year
• As per Sikh Literature, on March 30, 1699, the tenth Guru of Sikh formed the Khalsa Panth
• India is considered an agricultural country and the economy of India is largely depends on agriculture so this festival is dedicated to all the farmers who work hard to provide to all the Citizens of India
• On this Auspicious day of Baisakhi, we all should be grateful to all the farmers of India. This festival is celebrated with different in different regions
• As per Astrology, Baisakhi is also celebrated as Mesha Sankranthi as this day marks the beginning of the new year and on this auspicious day, the planet Sun is going to transit from Pisces to Aries
• Sun is considered to be one of the main planets and devotees visit holy places and start their day with Ganga Snana and offers prayer to Lord Sun
• Some people donate food and clothes to Bramhins and conduct Pitra puja for their ancestors

3. Baisakhi festival in different regions

 

Baisakhi festival is celebrated in different cities with different names as mentioned below

State	Name
Odisha	Pana Sankranti
Tamilnadu	Puthandu
Kerala	Vishu
West Bengal	Naba Barsha or Pohela Boishakh
Assam	Bohag Bihu

 

In Punjab and Haryana, the festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated with great enthusiasm and fervor

Sikh community people celebrate this day by doing nagar kirtans, visiting Gurudwaras

This is a religious festival for all the people who belong to Sikh community

They offer prayers and seek blessings 

 

 

 

 

Source: indianexpress

FLASH DROUGHTS

1. Context

The study found that flash droughts occurred more often than slower ones in tropical places like India, Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the Amazon Basin. Human-caused climate change is a major reason for the Flash droughts.

As global warming continues, more abrupt dry spells could have grave consequences for people in humid regions whose livelihoods depend on rain-fed agriculture.

 

2. About Flash droughts

• Flash drought is sudden, and extreme dry spells are becoming a big concern for farmers and water utilities.
• Flash droughts start and intensify quickly over periods of weeks to months, compared to years or decades for conventional droughts.
• Still, they can cause substantial economic damage, since communities have less time to prepare for the impacts of a rapidly evolving drought.
• Flash droughts also can increase wildfire risks, cause public water supply shortages and reduce stream flow, which harms fish and other aquatic life.

3. Formation of Flash Droughts

• Flash droughts typically result from a combination of lower-then-normal precipitation and higher temperatures. Together, these factors reduce overall land surface moisture.
• Water constantly cycles between land and the atmosphere. Under normal conditions, moisture from rainfall or snowfall accumulates in the soil during wet seasons.
• Plants draw water up through their roots and release water vapour into the air through their leaves, a process called transpiration. Some moisture also evaporates directly from the soil into the air.
• Scientists refer to the amount of water that could be transferred from the land to the atmosphere as evaporative demand a measure of how "thirsty" the atmosphere is.
• Higher temperatures increase evaporative demand, which makes water evaporate faster.
• When soil contains enough moisture, it can meet this demand. But if soil moisture is depleted for example, if precipitation drops below normal levels for months then evaporation from the land surface can't provide all the moisture that a thirsty atmosphere demands.
• Reduced moisture at the surface increases surface air temperatures, drying out the soil further. These processes amplify each other, making the area increasingly hot and dry.

4. Rapid-onset droughts in the world

• The world has probably always experienced rapid-onset droughts, but only in the past decade or two have they become a significant focus of scientific research.
• New data sources and advances in computer modelling have allowed scientists to home in on the complex physical processes behind them.
• The concept also gained attention in 2012 after a severe drought charged across the United States, ravaging farm fields and pastures and causing over $  30 billion in losses, most of them in agriculture.
• In general, this kind of rapid drying occurs when it is warm and rain would normally be falling but very little.
• In such circumstances, the ground might already be wet from earlier rain or snow.
• When the precipitation suddenly shuts off, hot, sunny and windy conditions can cause large amounts of water to evaporate quickly.
• This is why the humid tropics tend to experience more flash droughts than slow ones.
• The wet seasons there are usually rainy enough to keep land and vegetation damp.
• But when the rains fail unexpectedly, the equatorial heat can desiccate the ground to devastating effect.
• The researchers looked at data from computer models on soil moisture worldwide between 1951 and 2014.
• They focused on drought episodes that were 20 days or longer, to exclude dry spells that were too short to cause much harm.
• The trends varied from place to place, but, looked at globally, they show a shift toward more frequent and more rapid flash droughts.

 

 

Image Source: NASA

 

These satellite images show the development of flash drought in the U.S. Southeast in early September 2019. The event began when a stubborn ridge of high-pressure air hung over the region for several weeks, bringing record-breaking temperatures, dry air and very little rain. Evaporative stress is a measure of how ‘thirsty’ the atmosphere is. Move the slider to see the change in moisture.

 

5. Measure to tackle flash droughts

• Conventional droughts, like the Dust Bowl of the 1930s or the current 22-year drought across the southwestern U.S., develop over periods of years.
• Scientists rely on monitoring and prediction tools, such as measurements of temperature and rainfall as well as models to forecast their evolution.
• Predicting flash drought events that occur on monthly to weekly time scales is much harder with current data and tools, largely due to the chaotic nature of weather and limitations in weather models.
• That's why weather forecasters don't typically make projections beyond 10 days there is a lot of variation in what can happen over longer time spans.
• And climate patterns can shift from year to year, adding to the challenge. For example, Boston had a very wet summer in 2021 before its very dry summer in 2022.
• Scientists expect climate change to make precipitation even more variable, especially in wetter regions like the U.S. Northeast.
• This will make it more difficult to forecast and prepare for flash droughts well in advance.
• But new monitoring tools that measure evaporative demand can provide early warnings for regions experiencing abnormal conditions.
• Information from these systems can give farmers and utilities sufficient lead time to adjust their operations and minimize their risks.

 

For Prelims: Flash droughts, global warming, transpiration, Conventional droughts, Dust Bowl of the 1930s,  For Mains: 1. What are Flash droughts? Discuss the reasons for flash droughts and explain the measures to tackle flash droughts. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous year questions   1. Match the following:  (TSPSC Group 4 2018) Type of Drought                       Vulnerability factor A. Meterological drought        1. Low soil moisture holding capacity B. Hydrological drought         2. Poor water management C. Agricultural drought           3. Deforestation 1. A-3, B-2, C-1 2. A-2, B-3, C-1 3. A-1, B-2, C-3 4. A-3, B-1, C-2   Answer: 1

 

 

 Source: The Indian Express and Conservation.com

INDIA'S MILK PRODUCTION

 

1. Context

Till mid-October last year, Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (Amul) was charging consumers Rs 10 per liter more for full-cream milk compared to toned milk. The maximum retail price (MRP) for its ‘Gold’ full-cream milk, containing 6% fat and 9% SNF (solids-not-fat), was Rs 62 per liter in Delhi, as against Rs 52 for ‘Taaza’ toned milk with 3% fat and 8.5% SNF. 

2. Why are milk prices going up?

• Demand Supply mismatch: The pandemic-hit dairy industry has reported a complete recovery. This year, the demand for liquid milk is also high compared to previous years. But most dairies in the country are short on their supply of skimmed milk powder (SMP) and white butter.
• Rise in cattle feed cost: The reduction in milk yield has come on the back of the rising cost of cattle feed. Cattle feed cost alone has gone up by over 25%.
• Disease in cattle: Some major milk-producing states have seen a rise in cases of disease among cattle. Lumpy skin disease which leads to falling in milk output has been reported in Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
• Rise in logistics cost: There has also been a rise in transport, logistics, manpower, and energy costs. Due to the rise in input costs, milk procurement rates have increased by 15-25%.

3. Importance of Milk and dairy products in everyday life

• Milk and milk products are rich in protein.
• They are a key source of calcium, vitamins, and protein for a large vegetarian population in India.
• Dairy industry strengthens the rural economy.
• It acts as a source of income for farmers and potential for women empowerment.

4. Present status of the Dairy sector in India

• According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), India is the highest milk producer in the world contributing 24% of global milk production.
• Top milk-producing states include Rajasthan (15.05%), Uttar Pradesh (14.93%), and Madhya Pradesh (8.6%).
• Indian dairy sector has an annual growth trend of 5-6%.
• In 2022, there was a 39% jump in exports of dairy products.
• Key exporting destinations are Bangladesh, UAE, Bahrain, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar.

Image Source: Economic Survey

5. Government Initiatives to Boost the dairy sector

• Operation Flood: It was launched in 1970 by National Dairy Development Board (NDDB). It transformed India from a milk-deficient into the world's largest milk producer. Dr. Varghese Kurien was the architect of Operation Flood.
• Rashtriya Gokul Mission: It aims to genetically improve the cattle population and promote and conserve indigenous cattle breeds.
• National Dairy Development Board (NDBB): It is monitoring the supply-demand gap in dairy products along with the central government.
• National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD): It aims to strengthen infrastructure for the production of high-quality milk as well as for the procurement, processing, and marketing of milk and milk products.
• Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS): It aims to create self-employment opportunities in the dairy industry.
• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is carrying out the programme.

6. Alternative to imports

• October-March is normally the ‘flush’ season in milk when supply exceeds demand.
• Dairies convert the surplus that they procure into skim milk powder (SMP) and butter fat.
• This is done by separating the cream and removing the water in the skimmed milk through evaporation and spray drying.
• The same SMP and fat are reconstituted into whole milk during the ‘lean’ summer-monsoon months (April-September) when animals produce less amid rising demand for curd, lassi, and ice cream.
• Such processing into solids and reconstitution by adding water happens in no other farm produce: atta flour and sausages once made cannot be turned back into wheat or pigs.
• The 2022-23 ‘flush’ was a rare season where milk procurement fell, leaving dairies with hardly any surplus for converting into fat and powder.
• And with production bound to fall further in the ongoing ‘lean’, the dependence on the purchase of milk solids for reconstitution will only go up.

7. Fixing GST Anamoly

• Therein lies a problem. Milk doesn’t attract any goods and services tax.
• But SMP is taxed at 5% and milk fat at 12%. So while dairies pay no tax on milk procured from farmers, they have to shell out GST on solids.
• And Input tax credits cannot be claimed, as there’s no GST on milk itself. Moreover, the tax incidence goes up as the fat in the reconstituted milk increases.
  
• For every 100 liters (103 kg) of full-cream milk that dairies process, 6.18 kg of fat and 9.27 kg of SMP are produced.
• Butter contains 82% fat. Taking its price at Rs 425/kg (Rs 518/kg of fat) and SMP’s at Rs 325/kg, their combined cost in the reconstitution of 100 liters will be Rs 6,214.
• Adding 12% GST on fat and 5% on SMP takes it to Rs 6,749 or Rs 67.49 per liter. 
• Simply put, the total cost of fat and SMP used in the reconstitution of one liter of full cream, and milk is today around Rs 67.5.
• The GST component in that is Rs 5.35/liter-Rs 3.84 on fat and Rs 1.51 on SMP -which is ultimately passed on to the consumer.
• One way to avoid this is by doing away with GST on milk solids used for reconstitution purposes.
• Alternatively, the GST on milk fats can be reduced to 5%. Differential rates on SMP and fat probably make no sense, when both are derived directly from milk.
• A 12% GST on milk fat is also an anomaly when vegetable fat (edible oils) is taxed at 5%.

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organisation Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), Input tax credits, Goods and Services Tax (GST), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), Rashtriya Gokul Mission, National Dairy Development Board (NDBB), National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD), Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS). For Mains: 1. Discuss why milk prices are going up and what are government initiatives to boost the dairy sector in India. (250 Words).

 

Source: The Indian Express