India and Bhutan enjoy “exemplary ties” of friendship and cooperation, based on trust, goodwill and mutual understanding at all levels, and the visit of Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay was in keeping with the tradition of regular high-level exchanges between the two countries

2. Historical Ties between India and Bhutan

India and Bhutan have a long and close history of diplomatic and economic ties, characterized by cooperation and mutual respect. Their relations can be traced back to ancient times when they had cultural and economic interactions. 

• The modern era of India-Bhutan relations formally began with the signing of the Treaty of Friendship between India and Bhutan in 1949. This treaty laid the foundation for diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation. It also affirmed Bhutan's sovereignty while recognizing India's role in guiding its foreign policy.
•  India has played a crucial role in ensuring Bhutan's security. During the border dispute between Bhutan and China in 2017, India supported Bhutan's stance, reinforcing their security cooperation.
• India has been a major source of economic aid and development assistance for Bhutan. Various Indian projects in Bhutan have focused on infrastructure development, education, healthcare, and other sectors, contributing to Bhutan's socio-economic progress.
• One of the significant areas of economic collaboration has been hydropower. India has been involved in the development of several hydropower projects in Bhutan, providing a source of revenue for the Bhutanese economy. These projects have also enhanced regional energy security.

• The discussions involved plans for improved connectivity between the two nations, especially focusing on border areas and immigration posts to support Bhutan’s initiative for a smart city at Gelephu, situated on the border between Bhutan and Assam. This development aims to fortify ties and foster regional growth.
• India's approval for the final survey on a 58 km cross-border rail link between Gelephu and Kokrajhar in Assam marks a significant step. Additionally, both nations have agreed to explore an 18 km rail link between Samtse in Bhutan and Banarhat in West Bengal, fostering greater trade opportunities. Furthermore, the agreement to extend Bhutanese trade items to Chilahati in Bangladesh from Haldibari in West Bengal indicates a broader regional trade expansion strategy.
• India’s commitment to supporting Bhutan’s socio-economic development in line with Bhutanese government priorities was reaffirmed by Prime Minister Modi. This includes support for Bhutan's 13th Five-Year Plan and the Bhutanese King's vision for a Special Economic Zone in the Sarpang district, which includes plans for an international airport at Gelephu.
• Acknowledging India's support for Bhutan's 12th Five-Year Plan, the Bhutanese King expressed gratitude, while India reiterated its commitment to assist in the upcoming 13th Five-Year Plan. The joint statement highlighted the importance of their strong bilateral ties and mutual support in various developmental efforts.
• The decision to transform the Darranga-Samdrup Jongkhar border crossing into an immigration check post is aimed at enhancing connectivity, tourism, and facilitating entry for third country nationals. Upgrading the land customs station at Dadgiri in Assam to an Integrated Check Post (ICP) and developing facilities in Gelephu on the Bhutanese side will further support the Bhutanese Special Economic Zone project, boosting trade and connectivity.
• These joint initiatives are expected to ease travel between India and Bhutan, foster increased trade with Bangladesh, and bolster tourism revenues for Bhutan, particularly important in the wake of economic challenges resulting from the pandemic. Bhutan's initiatives, led by the King, intend to create more job opportunities and enhance tourism in the country.

4. Conclusion

The recent discussions and agreements between India and Bhutan focus on improving connectivity, trade, and tourism, as well as addressing economic challenges in Bhutan through infrastructure development and international cooperation.

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

1. Context

Data concerning the representation of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in rural local bodies of Tamil Nadu, as mentioned in the recently launched report ‘Status of Devolution to Panchayats in States’, have caught long-time observers of panchayats in the State by surprise

2. About the sub-categorization of OBCs

• The concept of sub-categorization of OBCs involves creating sub-groups within the larger OBC category for reservation purposes.
• Currently, OBCs are granted 27% reservation in jobs and education under the central government.
• However, there has been a debate over the equitable distribution of these benefits among the various OBC communities.
• Some argue that a few affluent communities within the Central List of OBCs have disproportionately secured the majority of the reservation benefits.
• Creating sub-categories aims to ensure a fairer distribution of representation among all OBC communities.

3. The Rohini Commission's Brief

1. To examine the extent of inequitable distribution of reservation benefits among the OBC castes or communities included in the Central List.
2. To devise a scientific approach for sub-categorization within the OBCs, including defining the mechanism, criteria, norms, and parameters.
3. To identify respective castes, communities, sub-castes, or synonyms in the Central List of OBCs and classify them into their respective sub-categories.
4. To study the Central List of OBCs and rectify any repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies, and errors.

• The Commission's progress has faced various challenges, including the absence of data on the population of different communities to compare their representation in jobs and education.
• Initially, the Commission had requested an all-India survey to estimate the caste-wise population of OBCs but later decided against it.
• Additionally, the government has remained silent on the collection of OBC data in the Census, despite demands from OBC groups.

4. The Extent of OBC Recruitment in Central Jobs

• As part of its findings, the Commission analyzed data from the preceding five years on OBC quota-based central jobs and admissions to central higher education institutions.
• It revealed that a disproportionate number of jobs and educational seats went to a small fraction of OBC sub-castes, with 37% of the total OBC communities having no representation in jobs and educational institutions.
• Regarding OBC representation in central jobs, as of March 17, the data showed that 20.26% of Group A to Group C employees were OBCs.
• However, the representation drops to 16.88% in Group A, where the reservation for OBCs is 27%.

Image Source: The Indian Express

5. The Way Forward

• Despite the challenges faced, the Commission has made significant progress, including drafting a report on sub-categorization.
• However, the final report is yet to be submitted. The extended tenure will provide the Commission with additional time to address the complexities of OBC sub-categorization and propose measures to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among all OBC communities.

For Prelims: Rohini Commission, OBCs, Central List For Mains:  1. Discuss the role of the government in addressing the demand for the enumeration of OBCs in the Census and its potential impact on OBC representation and welfare." (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Who was appointed as the head of the OBC Sub-categorisation Commission? (Maharashtra Talathi 2019)  A. Justice Geeta Mittal B. Justice Manjula Chellur C. Justice Tahilramani D. Justice G. Rohini   Answer: D   2. Which of the following pairs of list and contents is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CAPF 2019)  1. State list                     Public health and sanitation 2. Union list                  Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens 3. Concurrent list          Legal, medical and other Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only             B. 1, 2 and 3          C.  2 and 3 only            D.  3 only   Answer: B

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

QUANTUM COMPUTING

1. Context 

Microsoft last week claimed a breakthrough in quantum computing, an eagerly-awaited technology much like artificial intelligence (AI), that holds the promise of performing tasks beyond the capabilities of current technologies.

 

2. About quantum computing

• Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers. 
• IBM Quantum makes real quantum hardware a tool scientists only began to imagine three decades ago available to hundreds of thousands of developers.
• Engineers deliver ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical orchestration.
• This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity necessary to change the world. 
• These machines are very different from the classical computers that have been around for more than half a century.

Image Source: IBM

3. Need for quantum computers

• For some problems, supercomputers aren’t that super. When scientists and engineers encounter difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers.
• These are very large classical computers, often with thousands of classical CPU and GPU cores. However, even supercomputers struggle to solve certain kinds of problems.
• If a supercomputer gets stumped, that's probably because the big classical machine was asked to solve a problem with a high degree of complexity. When classical computers fail, it's often due to complexity
• Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways.
• Modelling the behaviour of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because of all the different electrons interacting with one another.
• Sorting out the ideal routes for a few hundred tankers in a global shipping network is complex too.

4. Quantum computers work

• Quantum computers are elegant machines, smaller and requiring less energy than supercomputers.
• An IBM Quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the one found in a laptop.
• And a quantum hardware system is about the size of a car, made up mostly of cooling systems to keep the superconducting processor at its ultra-cold operational temperature.
• A classical processor uses bits to perform its operations. A quantum computer uses qubits (CUE-bits) to run multidimensional quantum algorithms.

4.1. Superfluids

• A desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work.
• Quantum processors need to be very cold about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero.
• To achieve this, we use super-cooled superfluids to create superconductors.

4.2. Superconductors

• At those ultra-low temperatures, certain materials in our processors exhibit another important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without resistance. This makes them "superconductors." 
• When electrons pass through superconductors they match up, forming "Cooper pairs."
• These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process known as quantum tunnelling.
• Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator form a Josephson junction.

4.3. Control

• Our quantum computers use Josephson junctions as superconducting qubits.
• By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control their behaviour and get them to hold, change, and read out individual units of quantum information.

4.4. Superposition

• A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can perform an important trick: placing the quantum information it holds into a state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of the qubit.
• Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these spaces.

4.5. Entanglement

• Entanglement is a quantum mechanical effect that correlates the behaviour of two separate things.
• When two qubits are entangled, changes to one qubit directly impact the other.
• Quantum algorithms leverage those relationships to find solutions to complex problems.

5. Making quantum computers useful

• Right now, IBM Quantum leads the world in quantum computing hardware and software. It is a clear and detailed plan to scale quantum processors, overcomes the scaling problem, and build the hardware necessary for quantum advantage.
• Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone.
• IBM has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to do useful work using quantum computers.
• They developed the Qiskit quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most widely-used quantum SDK in the world.
• The Qiskit Runtime is the most powerful quantum programming model in the world.
• Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and classical resources.

 

For Prelims: Quantum computing, supercomputers, Qiskit Runtime, IBM, National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications, superconductors,  For Mains:  1. What is Quantum computing? Discuss the need for Quantum Computers in emerging countries like India. (250 Words) 2. What are quantum computers and how are they different from conventional computers? Where does India stand in the race to build quantum computers that can realise their full potential? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. India's first Supercomputer is  (TSPSC AEE 2015) A. Aditya B. Param Yuva C.  Param D. Vikram-100 Answer: C   2. What is the full form of IBM? (SSC Steno  2017)  A. International Business Machine B. Indian Beta Machine C. Integral Business Machine D. Internal Beta Machine   Answer: A   3. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC 2022)  A. Cloud Services B. Quantum Computing C. Visible Light Communication Technologies D. Wireless Communication Technologies   Answer: B   4. Quantum computing uses  (ACC 124 CGAT  2021) A. Qubit B. Bits C. Bytes D. Qubytes   Answer: A

 

Source: IBM

 

ISLAM AND INDIA

 

 

1. Context

 

Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century and spread westwards towards the Mediterranean and eastwards into Persia. By the 8th century, it had expanded its reach from Spain to Sindh. But how did it reach India? 

 

2. Early Signs of Islam in India

 

• The presence of Islam in India dates back to the 7th century, with the establishment of significant mosques such as the Cheraman Juma Mosque in Kerala, the Palaiya Jumma Palli in Tamil Nadu, and the Barwada Mosque in Gujarat— the latter uniquely oriented towards Jerusalem.
• These places of worship were constructed by Arab sailors and merchants, often with the patronage of local Hindu rulers, marking the initial introduction of Islamic teachings to Indian shores.
• A Persian text from the 13th century recounts the Arab expeditions in the 7th and 8th centuries, attempting to capture regions such as Thana near present-day Mumbai.
• However, these incursions were successfully resisted by ruling dynasties like the Pratiharas.
• While Islam primarily expanded in India through trade networks, it also entered the subcontinent via military campaigns, particularly in the Sindh region during the 7th century.
• By the 10th century, Central Asian raiders, notably Mahmud of Ghazni, began crossing the Hindu Kush mountains, launching raids on North Indian temples in search of wealth.
• Unlike the earlier Arab traders, these invaders were predominantly Turkic groups from Central Asia.
• From the 12th century onward, they established settlements and began exploiting India’s agricultural resources. By the 15th century, the dominance of the Turks and Afghans had waned, giving way to the emergence of the Mughal Empire

3. Sultans and Sufis

 

• The arrival of the Sultans in India brought with it a new Persian-influenced court culture, which gradually replaced the earlier Sanskritic traditions. Their mastery of cavalry warfare made them a dominant military force, which is why Rajasthan has many folk deities associated with horse-riding, known as ‘pirs’ and ‘virs,’ revered by both Hindus and Muslims.
• In South India, this cultural synthesis is reflected in temple traditions where Muslim warriors, such as Vavar and Ravuttan, are depicted as protectors of Hindu gods and goddesses.
• Similarly, in Vishnu temples like Srirangam, the presence of Bibi-Nachiyar—a Muslim princess believed to be a consort of the deity—highlights the deep cultural interconnections of the time.
• From the 12th century onward, Sufi mystics from Central Asia began arriving in India, gaining widespread popularity, especially after the Mongol invasions disrupted the old Arabic empire.
• These Sufis traveled extensively along trade routes, bringing with them not only spiritual teachings but also practical knowledge in law, medicine, and agriculture. While some were warriors or ghazis, others were preachers who provided solace and guidance to local communities, making them highly respected figures.
• Upon their passing, their tombs, known as dargahs, became centers of spiritual devotion, attracting people from diverse backgrounds seeking divine blessings. Over time, these Muslim pirs integrated with Hindu virs, becoming an integral part of India's rich folk traditions and religious landscape

 

4. Islam through agriculture

 

• Beyond trade and conquests, Islam also expanded in India through agricultural innovations. From the 10th century onward, Sufi settlers introduced advanced farming techniques, such as underground water canals and water wheels, which had been developed in regions like Persia and Spain.
• These innovations enabled cultivation in arid areas, particularly in Sindh and Punjab, transforming previously barren lands into fertile fields. As a result, landless peasant communities, such as the Jats, gained access to land and experienced economic upliftment. Over time, these regions developed significant Muslim populations, eventually forming the foundation of what later became Pakistan.
• During the Mughal era in eastern India, a shift in the Ganga River’s course exposed new tracts of land suitable for cultivation. The Mughal administration encouraged farming in these areas to boost revenue, drawing in frontier communities that had previously remained on the periphery of mainstream society.
• Many Sufi scholars, who had been marginalized in Delhi, supported these settlers in building new agricultural settlements, which later contributed to the formation of Bangladesh.
• This period also saw the emergence of unique cultural and religious traditions, such as the veneration of Panch Pir—five revered Muslim saints who were often identified with the Five Pandavas of Hindu mythology.
• Additionally, figures like Bon Bibi, a guardian spirit of the Sunderbans, became central to local belief systems.
• Architecturally, the mosques built in Bengal during this time featured terracotta designs resembling traditional Bengali huts, reflecting a distinct departure from the Arabic-Persian styles seen elsewhere

 

5. Immigrant Way

 

• The influx of Muslim migrants from Central Asia and Persia increased significantly after the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Many were drawn to India due to the vast job opportunities offered by the Delhi and Bahmani sultanates.
• Some arrived with their families, while others married local women. These immigrants took on various roles, serving as naukars (paid soldiers) and chakars (accountants), bringing Islam along with them.
• As members of the elite, they predominantly spoke Persian and constructed Persian-style mosques in the Deccan, such as the renowned Gawan Madarsa in Bidar.
• However, tensions arose between local Indian Muslim elites and the newly arrived immigrant Muslims. The latter often viewed Indian Muslim converts, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, with disdain.
• Over time, Islam in India began to reflect the existing caste hierarchy, with Sayyids—those claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad—occupying a superior status, while Pasmandas (a Persian term for marginalized Muslim communities) were regarded as lower caste. In between were groups who traced their lineage to Arab merchants and Persian nobility.
• The introduction and expansion of Islam in India was not a singular event but rather a complex, multi-layered process spanning over seven centuries. It involved a combination of trade, warfare, missionary efforts, agricultural advancements, and migration, each contributing to the diverse and evolving landscape of Islam in the Indian subcontinent

 

For Prelims: Religion, Art , Culture   For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR)

 

 

1. Context

 

Petitioners, it has emerged, were offered two-wheelers for half the market price by the accused who claimed to have access to the corporate social responsibility (CSR) funds of large companies. Though initially many received the two-wheelers, soon the promises began to fall apart and people started lodging complaints

 

2. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

 

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to the practice where businesses voluntarily take actions to contribute positively to society and the environment. CSR involves going beyond profit-making to address social, ethical, and environmental concerns, creating a balance between economic, social, and environmental goals.

 

Environmental Responsibility: Companies engage in sustainable practices, such as reducing carbon emissions, managing waste, and conserving natural resources. Ethical Business Practices: CSR encourages ethical operations, including transparency, fair trade, and responsible sourcing. Community Engagement: Many companies invest in community welfare by supporting local education, healthcare, and infrastructure development. Employee Well-being: CSR also includes providing safe working conditions, fair wages, and professional growth opportunities

 

 

3. CSR's Contribution to agriculture

 

• Around 47% of India’s population relies on agriculture for employment, a share far above the global average of 25%. Agriculture contributes about 16.73% to India’s GDP. With food production now relatively stable, current concerns focus on issues like the degradation of natural resources, stagnating farmer incomes, and the impacts of climate change.
• Recently, corporations have shown increased interest in supporting climate action and sustainability in India’s agricultural sector through their CSR budgets.
• A CSR outlook report from last year indicated that 23% of surveyed companies prioritized “environment and sustainability” in their CSR initiatives. Indian agriculture today faces urgent needs for capital investment and infrastructure development, areas where CSR efforts have already made an impact and are expected to continue.
• Examples include establishing grain banks, farmer training centers, agriculture-based livelihood projects, water conservation programs, and energy-efficient irrigation systems.
• The recent shift towards sustainable and modern agriculture further underscores the role CSR funding from the private sector can play in supporting these efforts

 

4. Challenges

 

• A significant challenge limiting CSR's impact on agriculture is the lack of a comprehensive system to consistently track and categorize funds directed specifically toward agriculture-related projects.
• Current reporting methods do not emphasize agricultural CSR initiatives distinctly. According to Schedule VII of the Companies Act, CSR activities that support agricultural sustainability may fall within 11 of the 29 categories for CSR spending.
• These categories include areas like gender equality, agroforestry, hunger and poverty eradication, technology incubation, animal welfare, environmental sustainability, livelihood enhancement, resource conservation, rural development, reducing socio-economic inequalities, and women’s empowerment.
• However, these broad categories cover diverse activities, many unrelated to agricultural sustainability, making it difficult to isolate and assess funding specifically for agriculture.
• Given agriculture’s critical role in India’s economy and its alignment with national goals for sustainable growth and a just transition, defining agriculture as a standalone CSR sector is essential.
• Shifting the reporting framework to focus on specific sectors receiving funds could enhance fund targeting, improve accountability, and ensure meaningful contributions.
• Identifying key sustainability challenges in agriculture and directing resources accordingly would also support measurable progress in this vital sector

 

5. Advantages of Corporate Social Responsibility

 

Business Benefits

• CSR enhances both a company's brand reputation and its financial performance. Initiatives like improving energy efficiency can cut operational expenses, often resulting in long-term savings.
• Consumers increasingly prefer brands that align with their own values, and CSR policies allow companies to visibly uphold these values, fostering customer trust and loyalty that strengthens competitive advantage.
• CSR can also attract skilled talent and boost employee satisfaction, as more people seek employers with values that mirror their own. Furthermore, addressing ethical and social responsibilities proactively can help avoid legal issues, fines, and potential damage to reputation.

Consumer Benefits

• CSR efforts promote responsible consumption by providing consumers with products and services aligned with ethical values and educating them on sustainability and ethical choices. These initiatives encourage companies to prioritize rigorous testing, quality control, and safety measures, thereby reducing the risk of defective or harmful products reaching the market.

Environmental Benefits

• CSR positively impacts environmental health by encouraging sustainable practices and accountability for environmental impacts. Through CSR, companies can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, work toward net-zero goals, conserve natural resources, lower pollution, and minimize ecosystem disruption. Additionally, CSR often promotes investment in research and development for eco-friendly products and practices.

Societal Benefits

• CSR supports local communities and addresses key societal issues like poverty, inequality, and environmental challenges. By creating jobs and fueling economic growth, CSR initiatives benefit society as a whole.
• Companies that lead in ethical practices inspire others, generating a positive ripple effect, and a commitment to ethical behavior at the corporate level strengthens ethical standards across society.

6. Way Forward

 

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) offers a wide array of benefits not only for businesses but also for consumers, the environment, and society at large. For businesses, CSR enhances brand reputation, fosters customer loyalty, and attracts top talent, while also mitigating potential legal risks. Consumers benefit by having access to ethically produced products that align with their values, while CSR-driven practices help ensure safety and quality. Environmentally, CSR encourages sustainable practices that contribute to a healthier planet, and socially, it supports community development and tackles pressing societal issues. As companies increasingly recognize the importance of responsible and ethical behavior, CSR becomes an essential driver for positive change, benefiting all stakeholders and creating a ripple effect of goodwill that shapes a more sustainable and equitable future

 

 

For Prelims: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Companies Act, 2013   For Mains: Detailed analysis, critical evaluation, and real-world applications of CSR

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

IRON AGE

 

 

1. Context

 

Releasing a report on the antiquity of iron, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin proclaimed that the iron age began on “Tamil soil”, placing the date 5,300-odd years ago (4th millennium BCE), and that the “history of Indian subcontinent could no longer overlook Tamil Nadu”.

 

2. What is an Iron Age?

 

• The Iron Age marks a transformative period in human civilization when societies transitioned from using bronze to iron for making tools, weapons, and other essential implements.
• This shift played a crucial role in shaping technological advancements, social structures, and economic developments across different regions. The emergence of iron as the primary metal for tool-making was largely due to its abundance and durability compared to bronze, which required both copper and tin—two metals that were not always easily available.
• The beginning of the Iron Age varied across regions. The earliest evidence of ironworking dates back to around 1200 BCE in Anatolia and the Near East, where the Hittites are believed to have pioneered iron smelting techniques.
• Over time, iron usage spread to other parts of the world, reaching India around 1200–1000 BCE, Europe by 800 BCE, and China by 600 BCE. As the knowledge of ironworking expanded, it led to significant changes in warfare, agriculture, and daily life.
• One of the key reasons for the rapid adoption of iron was its strength and availability. Unlike bronze, which required the extraction and combination of two different metals, iron ore was more widely accessible.
• Even though early iron tools were initially less effective than bronze ones, advancements in metallurgy, such as carburization (adding carbon to iron to create steel), improved their quality. This made iron tools sharper, more durable, and ideal for both farming and combat.
• The Iron Age was also marked by the rise of powerful kingdoms and empires. As societies gained access to superior weapons and agricultural tools, they were able to expand their territories, strengthen their economies, and develop more complex political systems.
• In India, for example, the use of iron contributed to the rise of the Mahajanapadas, powerful kingdoms that laid the foundation for later Indian empires. Similarly, in Europe, the Celts and other civilizations thrived due to their iron-based weaponry and farming tools.
• Another significant development during this period was the growth of trade and urbanization. The increased use of iron led to the expansion of trade networks, as civilizations exchanged iron goods along with other commodities. Cities grew in size and complexity, with specialized craftsmen, traders, and warriors playing key roles in society.
• Despite its many advantages, the Iron Age also had challenges. The process of iron smelting required high temperatures and advanced knowledge, making it more complex than working with bronze. Additionally, the increased competition for resources and the rise of stronger armies led to frequent conflicts and territorial expansions.
• In conclusion, the Iron Age revolutionized human civilization, bringing significant advancements in technology, agriculture, warfare, and trade. It laid the foundation for the development of great empires and shaped the course of history in profound ways.
• As societies mastered the use of iron, they moved towards more sophisticated governance systems and economic structures, ultimately setting the stage for the classical civilizations that followed

 

Indian Scenario   Excavations carried out by the U.P. State Archaeological Department at sites such as Raja Nala-ka-tila (1996–98), Malhar (1998–99), and Dadupur (1999–2001) unearthed iron artefacts, furnaces, and tuyeres, which were carbon-dated to between 1800 and 1000 BCE. The discoveries at Malhar, in particular, provided strong indications of large-scale iron tool production due to the presence of tuyeres, slags, and finished iron objects. Based on this collective evidence, scholars concluded that iron smelting and the manufacture of iron tools were well understood in the Eastern Vindhyas and that iron may have been in use in the Central Ganga Plain as early as the early second millennium BCE

 

 

3. Iron age through the prism of Tamilnadu

 

• In Tamil Nadu, several archaeological excavations have been actively conducted in recent years. In 2022, prior to the latest report released by Chief Minister M.K. Stalin that further revised the antiquity of iron usage, the site of Mayiladumparai in Krishnagiri district gained significant attention.
• The Chief Minister had announced that the introduction of the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu dates back 4,200 years (third millennium BCE), based on the findings of the State Archaeological Department’s report, ‘Mayiladumparai - Beginning of Agrarian Society; 4,200-year-old Iron Age Culture in Tamil Nadu.’ This revelation led experts to observe that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu aligns with the Copper or Bronze Age in other regions.
• A more recent report by the State Archaeology Department, titled ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu,’ supports this claim. It highlights that while cultural zones north of the Vindhyas were still in the Copper Age, southern regions, particularly Tamil Nadu, may have already transitioned into the Iron Age due to the limited availability of commercially viable copper ore.
• In an effort to gain a comprehensive understanding of Tamil Nadu’s Iron Age, extensive excavations have been carried out by the State Archaeology Department, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and other institutions at locations such as Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai. Based on these findings, the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu has been dated between 3,345 BCE and 2,953 BCE

 

4. Sequence of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age

 

Human history is broadly divided into different ages based on the materials used for tools and technology. The three major prehistoric periods—Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age—mark significant advancements in human civilization.

1. Stone Age (Prehistoric - c. 3300 BCE)

The Stone Age is the earliest known period of human history, during which stone was the primary material used for tools and weapons. It is further divided into three phases:

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by hunter-gatherer societies, simple stone tools, and the discovery of fire.
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional period with refined tools and early domestication of plants and animals.
• Neolithic (New Stone Age): Marked by agriculture, permanent settlements, pottery, and more advanced stone tools.

The Stone Age ended with the advent of metallurgy, leading to the next phase—the Bronze Age.

2. Bronze Age (c. 3300 BCE – 1200 BCE)

The Bronze Age began when humans discovered how to smelt and mix copper with tin to create bronze, a much stronger metal than stone. This period saw the rise of early civilizations, urbanization, trade, and written records. Notable Bronze Age civilizations include the Indus Valley Civilization, Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and the Shang Dynasty in China.

The Bronze Age ended when iron metallurgy advanced, leading to the Iron Age.

3. Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE – onwards)

The Iron Age began when iron replaced bronze as the dominant material for tools and weapons. Iron was more durable and widely available, making it a crucial advancement. This period saw the rise of large empires, advanced warfare, improved agriculture, and widespread trade networks. Civilizations like the Mauryan Empire in India, the Roman Empire, and various Chinese dynasties flourished during this time.

The Iron Age gradually transitioned into historical periods with the rise of written records and organized states, leading to the classical civilizations of antiquity.

Thus, the sequence of ages follows the Stone Age → Bronze Age → Iron Age, each representing a milestone in human progress and technological development

 

For Prelims: Indus Valley Civilisation, Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE, Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE, Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi. For Mains: Discuss the phases of the Indus Valley Civilisation and explain the Political and Social life during the Indus Valley civilization. (250 Words).

Previous year Questions

1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011) 1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene. 2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C

 

Source: The Hindu

WAQF ACT

 

 

1. Context

 

 From attempting to address concerns over the omission of Waqf-by-user, the need to consider the long-term links between the tenants’ associations and Waqf properties and suggestions for a legislation to check declaration of tribal lands as Waqf properties, the 655-page draft report of the Joint Committee on Waqf (Amendment) Bill has flagged several aspects of the proposed legislation.

 

2. India's Waqf Law

 

• In Islamic law, a waqf refers to property dedicated to God for religious or charitable purposes. This can include any type of property, either movable or immovable, that is set aside for the benefit of the public, serving as an act of piety that enables Muslims to continue their charitable contributions even after death.
• A waqf can be created through a formal document, or property may be recognized as waqf if it has been consistently used for religious or charitable purposes over time. The income generated from such properties is usually directed towards the upkeep of mosques, funding educational institutions, or aiding the needy.
• Once a property is designated as waqf, it cannot be inherited, sold, or given away. Non-Muslims are also permitted to establish a waqf, provided the purpose aligns with Islamic values.
• In India, waqfs are governed by the 1995 Act. The identification and delineation of waqf properties are carried out by a survey conducted by the State government.
• A survey commissioner, appointed under this Act, identifies these properties through local inquiries, witness statements, and examination of public records. Once identified, the properties are listed in the State’s official gazette, and a record is maintained by the State Waqf Board.
• Each waqf is managed by a mutawalli (caretaker) responsible for its administration. While waqfs are similar to trusts under the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, unlike trusts, waqfs cannot be dissolved by a Board

3. Functions and role of Waqf board

 

• The 1995 Act creates Waqf Boards in each State, responsible for overseeing the management of waqf properties within their respective areas. These Boards are legally recognized entities, enabling them to initiate or face legal action.
• Each State Waqf Board is led by a chairperson and includes one or two representatives from the State government, Muslim legislators, acknowledged Islamic scholars, and mutawallis (caretakers) of the waqfs.
• The Act also requires the appointment of a full-time Chief Executive Officer for each Board, who must be a practicing Muslim and hold a rank equivalent to at least a Deputy Secretary in the State government.
• The Waqf Board is empowered to manage waqf properties and undertake actions to reclaim lost assets. It also has the authority to approve the transfer of immovable waqf properties through sale, gift, mortgage, exchange, or lease, but such transactions require the consent of at least two-thirds of the Board members.
• The 2013 amendments to the 1995 Act further enhanced the Board's powers, making it almost impossible to sell waqf properties, as neither the mutawalli nor the Board is permitted to sell such property.
• In addition to the State Waqf Boards, the legislation also establishes the Central Waqf Council, a national advisory body under the Ministry of Minority Affairs.
• This Council ensures consistent administration of waqf properties across the country and is chaired by the Union Minister of Minority Affairs.
• The Council also advises the Union government on waqf-related matters, including policy formulation, implementation of waqf laws, and the resolution of inter-state disputes

4. Proposed Changes in the bill

 

• The definition of ‘waqf’ has been revised under the new Bill. Now, only lawful property owners who have practiced Islam for at least five years are permitted to establish waqf properties through formal deeds.
• This change eliminates the concept of ‘waqf by use,’ which allowed a property to be considered waqf based on its usage, even if the original deed was contested. Historically, waqf properties were often designated orally until formal documentation became more common.
• To prevent fraudulent claims of waqf status, the Bill stipulates that any government property identified or declared as waqf, either before or after the enactment of this Act, will not be recognized as waqf property. The law also allows widows, divorced women, and orphans to benefit from waqf proceeds.
• The responsibility for surveying waqf properties, previously handled by survey commissioners under the 1995 Act, will now be transferred to district collectors or officers of equivalent rank under the new Bill.
• To enhance the accuracy of waqf property records, the Bill proposes the establishment of a centralized registration system. All information regarding waqf properties must be uploaded to this portal within six months of the law’s enactment, and any new waqf property registrations must be submitted through this portal to the Waqf Boards.
• Additionally, the Bill removes section 40, which previously allowed waqf tribunals to determine whether a property qualifies as waqf. Instead, the district collector is now designated as the final authority on such matters.
• Once a decision is made, the collector must update the revenue records and report to the State government. Importantly, the Bill states that the disputed property cannot be treated as waqf property until the collector submits a final report, meaning the Waqf Board cannot take control of the land until the government resolves the issue.
• One of the most debated provisions in the Bill is the proposal to include non-Muslims in key waqf institutions, such as the Central Waqf Council, State Waqf Boards, and waqf tribunals.
• The Bill authorizes the Centre to appoint three Members of Parliament (two from the Lok Sabha and one from the Rajya Sabha) to the Central Waqf Council without requiring them to be Muslims. Previously, under the 1995 Act, these MPs had to be from the Muslim community.
• The new Bill also mandates that State Waqf Boards must include two non-Muslims and two women as members. The composition of waqf tribunals has been altered from a three-member body to a two-member body, consisting of a district judge and an officer of joint secretary rank to the State government.
• The proposed law requires tribunals to resolve disputes within six months, with a possible six-month extension.
• Furthermore, the Bill gives the Centre the authority to “direct the audit of any waqf at any time by an auditor appointed by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, or by any officer designated by the Central Government for that purpose.”
• The Waqf Boards are required to audit their accounts annually, selecting auditors from a panel formed by the State governments. Mutawallis who fail to maintain proper accounts will face penalties.
• The proposed law also allows courts to intervene in waqf disputes by removing the finality of waqf tribunal decisions, enabling aggrieved parties to appeal directly to the relevant High Court. This measure aims to increase judicial oversight and reduce instances of arbitrary power exercised by Waqf Boards or tribunals

5. Way forward

 

Following its introduction in Parliament, the Bill was sent to a joint parliamentary committee for further examination after the Congress-led INDIA bloc opposed the proposed legislation in its current form.

In March of the previous year, the Union government informed the Delhi High Court that nearly 120 petitions challenging various provisions of the 1995 Act are currently pending in courts across the country

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Waqf board, Amendment process in Parliament   For Mains: GS II - Indian Governance

 

 

Source: The Hindu