2. What is a national monument?

A national monument is a protected area or site that has been designated by a government or other authority as having national significance. These monuments can be natural, cultural, or historical landmarks and are usually protected from development or other activities that could damage or destroy them. National monuments are often open to the public and may have visitor centers, trails, and other facilities to help people learn about and appreciate them. They are typically managed by government agencies or non-profit organizations that work to preserve and protect them for future generations.

3. About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

• The ASI was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham, when he realised the need for a permanent body to oversee archaeological excavations and conservation.
• But while the body remained largely dysfunctional in the 19th century owing to fund crunch, in the decades preceding Independence, it became very active.
• A bulk of the protected monuments were taken under the ASI’s wings during the 1920s and30s, up till the 50s.
• But in the decades after independence, the focus of successive governments was on health, education and infrastructure, rather than protecting heritage.
• Even within the scope of heritage, the aim was to uncover more monuments and sites, instead of conservation.

Powers

• The ASI operates under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, which empowers it to protect and manage monuments and archaeological sites of national importance.
•  The ASI formulates and enforces regulations related to archaeological activities, including excavations, conservation, and publication of findings.
• The ASI issues licenses for excavations, export of antiquities, and trade in archaeological objects.

Functions

• The ASI undertakes conservation and restoration of protected monuments and sites. This includes structural repairs, chemical preservation, and environmental management.
• The ASI conducts archaeological excavations to uncover historical remains, understand past civilizations, and enrich our knowledge of history.
• The ASI conducts research on various aspects of archaeology and publishes findings in reports, journals, and books.
• The ASI studies ancient inscriptions and coins to understand language, history, and economic systems.
• The ASI manages site museums at various monuments and archaeological sites to showcase artifacts and educate the public.
• The ASI conducts educational programs and outreach activities to raise public awareness about India's cultural heritage.

Role

• The ASI plays a vital role in preserving India's rich cultural heritage for future generations. It safeguards monuments and sites that represent diverse periods and cultures, fostering national identity and pride.
• By protecting and promoting historical sites, the ASI contributes significantly to India's tourism industry. Well-maintained monuments attract visitors, generating revenue and local economic benefits.
• The ASI's research activities contribute to our understanding of India's history, culture, and society. This knowledge enriches academic fields and informs public discourse.

Mandate

• To protect and preserve monuments and archaeological sites of national importance.
• To conduct research and excavations to understand India's past.
• To educate the public about India's cultural heritage.
• To promote tourism by developing and maintaining historical sites.

Significance

• The ASI is responsible for protecting and preserving India's archaeological sites, monuments, and artifacts. This includes conducting conservation and restoration work to ensure that these cultural treasures are maintained for future generations.
• India is home to numerous world-renowned archaeological sites and monuments, such as the Taj Mahal, Qutub Minar, and Ajanta and Ellora Caves. The ASI's efforts to preserve and promote these sites contribute to the country's tourism industry, attracting millions of visitors from around the world each year.
• India's rich cultural heritage is an integral part of its identity. The ASI's work helps to preserve and promote this heritage, fostering a sense of pride and connection among the country's citizens.
• The ASI conducts research and documentation on India's archaeological heritage, contributing to the understanding of the country's history and culture. It also plays a role in educating the public about India's archaeological sites and artifacts through exhibitions, publications, and educational programs.
• The ASI enforces laws and regulations related to the protection and preservation of India's cultural heritage. This includes the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, which provides legal protection to ancient monuments and archaeological sites in India.

4. The Way Forward

The Archaeological Survey of India plays an indispensable role in safeguarding and interpreting India's rich cultural heritage. Their efforts not only preserve the past but also contribute to academic knowledge, national identity, and economic development. As India navigates the future, the ASI's work remains vital in ensuring that its cultural legacy continues to inspire and educate generations to come.

 Source: The Indian Express

NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL

1. Context

2. What is National Green Tribunal (NGT)?

• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body established in India to handle cases related to environmental protection and conservation.
• It was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, and its primary objective is to effectively and expeditiously address environmental disputes and promote sustainable development.
• With the establishment of the NGT, India became the third country in the world to set up a specialized environmental tribunal, only after Australia and New Zealand, and the first developing country to do so.
   
• NGT is mandated to make disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of the filing of the same.
• The NGT has five places of sittings, New Delhi is the Principal place of sitting, and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the other four.

3. Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• Chairperson: The NGT is headed by a full-time Chairperson who is a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Chairperson is responsible for the overall administration and functioning of the tribunal.
• Judicial Members: The NGT consists of judicial members who are retired judges of either the Supreme Court or a High Court. These members have extensive legal knowledge and experience in handling environmental matters.
• Expert Members: The tribunal also includes expert members who possess expertise in areas such as environmental science, ecology, hydrology, and forestry. These members provide valuable technical insights and guidance in the resolution of environmental disputes.
• The NGT is organized into multiple benches located across different regions of India. These benches are responsible for hearing cases specific to their respective jurisdictions. Each bench is headed by a judicial member and consists of one or more expert members, as required.

4. What are the Important Landmark Judgements of NGT?

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:

• Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
• Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
• Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
• Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
• Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
• Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
• Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
• In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.

5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?

• Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
• It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
• In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
• Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
• Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
• Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.

Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:

• Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
• Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.

6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

• COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
• It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
• COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
• It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

• BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
• It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BOD₅).
• BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
• High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.

Comparing BOD and COD:

• BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
• COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
• BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.

For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)

 

Previous year Question 1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018) 1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government. 2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B   2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012) 1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21 2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1) 3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A) Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

 

 

1.Context

When it comes to making sense of our universe, the importance of black holes is hard to understate. Scientists know that a black hole exerts a strong gravitational pull, so much so that any object that gets closer to its centre beyond a point can never get back out. The effects of black holes on their surroundings include the release of a tremendous amount of energy. These effects are crucial to determining the structures of the galaxies they occupy and how the stars around them evolved over time

 

2.Black Hole

 

• A Black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong that nothing no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it.
• The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform space-time to form a Black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon.
• The concept was theorized by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the term 'black hole' was coined in the mid-1960s by American physicist John Archibald Wheeler.

Usually, black holes belong to two categories:

• One category ranges between a few solar masses and tens of solar masses. These are thought to form when massive stars die.
• The other category is supermassive black holes. These range from hundreds of thousands to billions of times that of the sun from the solar system to which Earth belongs.

 

3.Types of Black Holes

There are four different forms of black holes

1. Stellar
2. Intermediate
3. Supermassive
4. Miniature

• The first is the SMBH, or supermassive black hole. This is the largest variety, with an unquantifiable number of solar masses. This is typically found at the heart of the universe's biggest galaxies. The SMBH is located in Sagittarius A in our solar system.
• The second is the singularity, which is the black hole's eye (or core). This is the point at which the curve becomes infinite.
• The photon sphere, a spherical boundary (with no thickness) where photons move perpendicularly to the sphere and are imprisoned in an elliptical orbit about the black hole, is the third.
• A micro black hole, also known as a little black hole or a quantum mechanical black hole, is the last form. Stephen Hawking first mentioned them in 1971.

4.Formation of Black hole

• Astronomers believe that depending on a star's mass, only one of the three things can happen once it runs out of fuel. A star with a mass less than that of the sun falls into a 'white dwarf' with a radius of barely a few thousand kilometres.
• If the mass of the star is between one and four times that of the sun, it can form a 'neutron star with a radius of only a few kilometres, which is known as a 'pulsar'.
• Only a few stars with mass greater than four times that of the sun may avoid collapsing and creating black holes within their Schwarzschild radii. As a result, black holes could be the remains of enormous stars.
• Milky way, according to most astronomers, was born from a vast cloud of gas that collapsed and broke up into individual stars.
• The nucleus, or core, of the galaxy, presently contains the most densely packed stars. It's possible that there was too much substance at the very centre to form a regular star, or that the stars that did form were too close together to form a black hole.
• As a result, it's been proposed that black holes as huge as a hundred million Suns could exist in the centre of some galaxies.

5.Rare Supermassive blackhole

• A rare supermassive black hole has been spotted by a team of Indian researchers and The monster black hole is about one billion light years away from the Earth. The black hole in question was captured, spewing a jet of radiation and particles in one direction, unlike others that fire jets in opposite directions. But strangely for this galaxy, only one side of the jet is seen. The supermassive black holes create powerful jets and radiation and particles.
• The supermassive black hole occupies the centre of the RAD 12 galaxy, which is elliptical or egg-shaped. RAD 12 is in the process of merging with another galaxy, RAD 12b, in the next one billion years. RAD 12b, which is elliptical, is bigger and brighter than RAD 12. The jet is bigger than its host, RAD 12. It resembles a 440 thousand light-years-long mushroom.
• This discovery may help scientists study why star formation does not occur in elliptical galaxies. Star formation requires extremely cooled gas, usually forged in a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. The temperature in these regions ranges from -253.15°C-263.15°C, according to the University of Oregon. Theoretically, jets remove cold gas and suppress star formation. Researchers speculate that jets fired by supermassive black holes will likely suppress future star formation.

 

For prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims:  Black holes, RAD 12, RAD 12b, Supermassive black hole (SMBH), Sagittarius A For Mains: 1. What is a Black Hole? Explain the formation and types of Black Holes. (250 words) .

 

Source: Down To Earth

 

CARBON MARKET

 

1. Context

 

COP29, the ongoing climate conference in Azerbaijan’s capital Baku, has given a fillip to the idea of using carbon markets to curb carbon emissions by approving standards that can help in the setting up of an international carbon market as soon as the coming year

 

2. What is the Carbon Market?

 

• A carbon market is a system where entities can buy and sell the right to release carbon into the atmosphere. If a government wishes to limit carbon emissions, it can issue carbon credits, which grant the holder permission to emit a specific amount of carbon dioxide.
• Each carbon credit represents 1,000 kilograms of CO2. By controlling the number of credits issued, governments can regulate the overall level of carbon emissions.
• It's important to note that those without carbon credits are not allowed to release carbon into the air.
• The concept of carbon credits originated in the 1990s in the United States with the introduction of a cap-and-trade model to manage sulfur dioxide emissions.
• Individuals and companies that possess carbon credits but do not require them can sell these credits to those who need them.
• The market price of carbon credits is influenced by the forces of supply and demand. Additionally, carbon markets may involve trading carbon offsets, where businesses that pollute can buy offsets from environmental organizations.
• These offsets typically represent projects like tree planting, which absorb a certain amount of carbon from the atmosphere to counterbalance emissions

3. Advantages of Carbon Markets

 

• Pollution and climate change caused by carbon emissions exemplify what economists refer to as an externality. An externality occurs when the costs of an economic activity are not properly incorporated into the market price due to the lack of well-defined property rights.
• For instance, a company that buys raw materials, like iron, must pay the supplier for the right to use the material, incurring a specific cost. However, when the same company releases carbon into the atmosphere, it typically doesn't have to compensate anyone for this emission.
• Essentially, companies can release waste into the air without bearing any financial burden. This results in unchecked environmental pollution, as firms lack the financial incentive to reduce their carbon emissions.
• Carbon markets, where the right to pollute is bought and sold, can address this issue by charging firms for emitting carbon, thus helping to reduce emissions.
• The combination of standardized accounting practices and technological advancements has enhanced companies' ability to track and report their carbon emissions.
• While this remains a challenge for many small businesses, especially in developing countries where tracking supply chain emissions is difficult, innovations like real-time data tracking in the energy sector are improving the accuracy and depth of corporate carbon accounting.
• Nonetheless, many corporations prefer voluntary reporting mechanisms, such as the Carbon Disclosure Project.
• They are generally opposed to government-imposed carbon emission limits, fearing that such regulations could lead to production restrictions or higher costs.
• Additionally, companies argue that the variability in production processes and supply chains makes it hard to establish an optimal carbon budget for each facility.
• Large multinational companies, including ExxonMobil and General Motors, support carbon markets where carbon credits can be freely traded, with prices set by market dynamics.
• They believe this approach would allow for more efficient allocation of carbon credits than government mandates

4. Challenges

 

• Even when a carbon market is in place, governments that are not focused on reducing emissions may increase the number of carbon credits available, which can lower the cost of emissions and result in no significant reduction in pollution.
• Alternatively, some governments may impose a strict cap on the supply of carbon credits but allow companies to bypass the system by illegally emitting carbon.
• The effectiveness of carbon offsets also depends on how motivated business owners are to address carbon emissions, which is often minimal.
• Critics argue that companies buying carbon offsets may do so more for image purposes than out of a genuine commitment to reducing emissions, and may not ensure that their investments are effectively offsetting carbon emissions.
• Furthermore, some critics question how a government could determine the optimal supply of carbon credits.
• They contend that politicians, who do not face direct economic consequences for their emission reduction policies, may restrict the number of credits too much, potentially hindering economic growth

 

 

For Prelims: Carbon farming, COP21, Paris Agreement, carbon cycle For Mains:  1. What is Carbon farming? discuss the effective techniques within carbon farming for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and explain the challenges that exist in implementing them, particularly in developing countries like India. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements (UPSC 2020) 1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body. 2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of the human body. 3. They can be used in biochemical sensors. 4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable. Which of the statements given above are correct?   A. 1 and 2 only       B.  2, 3 and 4 only        C. 1, 3 and 4 only          D. 1, 2, 3 and 4   2. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2019) A. Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species. B. Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories. C. A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory. D. Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes   3. Consider the following statements (upsc 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome 2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030 Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 Only            B. 2 Only                   C. Both 1 and 2                 D. Neither 1 Nor 2   4. LPG stands for (MPSC 2017) A. Liquidity, Profitability and Growth B. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Growth C. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation D.None of the above   5. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was launched (RRC Group D 2018)  A. July 2017       B. January 2018      C. May 2014      D.  May 2016   6. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³. 2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. 3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1, 3 and 4         B. 1 and 4 only      C.  2, 3 and 4         D. 1 and 2 only   Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-D, 6-B

 

Source: The Hindu

 

POLAVARAM PROJECT

 

 

1. Context

 

The Biju Janata Dal (BJD) has recently intensified its efforts to highlight the potential adverse impacts of the Polavaram Dam project, undertaken by the Andhra Pradesh government, on the tribal communities in Odisha’s Malkangiri district. A delegation comprising BJD’s Rajya Sabha members submitted a fresh memorandum to the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change stating that the impact of submergence due to ‘unilateral’ change in the design of the project has not yet been studied

 

2. Polavaram Project

 

The Polavaram Project is a multipurpose irrigation project located on the Godavari River in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is one of the most ambitious and controversial infrastructure projects in the country. The project aims to provide irrigation, hydropower generation, and drinking water supply to several regions in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Odisha.

Key Features of the Polavaram Project:

• Location: The project is situated in the West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Type: It is a river valley project that includes a dam, reservoir, and canals for irrigation.
• Purpose: The primary purpose of the project is to irrigate approximately 2.91 million acres of land in the region and provide drinking water to several towns and cities. It will also generate hydroelectric power.
• Height of the Dam: The dam will be 45 meters high, with a reservoir capacity of 80.75 TMC (Thousand Million Cubic Feet) of water.
• Irrigation: It aims to irrigate areas in the Godavari Basin, providing water to agricultural lands.
• Hydropower Generation: The project includes a power plant that will generate around 960 MW of electricity.
• Flood Control: The dam will also help in controlling floods in the region, particularly during the monsoon season

 

3. Status of the Polavaram Project

 

• Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu has committed to finishing the Polavaram Project on the Godavari River by 2027, as the ongoing interstate dispute involving Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh reaches a critical stage. The Union government has pledged ₹15,000 crore in this year’s budget to support the project's completion.
• However, the BJD has accused the Central Water Commission (CWC) of refusing to conduct a backwater study for the revised design flood, despite expert recommendations and concerns raised by the Odisha government about the safety of tribal populations.
• The BJD claims that various studies, including those by the Andhra Pradesh government and CWC, show differing estimates for the submergence levels.
• For example, a 2009 backwater study by Andhra Pradesh suggests that a 50-lakh cusec flood would result in submergence up to 216 feet in Odisha, significantly surpassing the initially agreed maximum level of 174.22 feet.
• A 2019 report from IIT Roorkee further projects that a 58 lakh cusec flood would cause submergence up to 232.28 feet at the reservoir level in Odisha

The Polavaram Irrigation Project on the Godavari River was initiated based on the recommendations of the Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (GWDT). An agreement was signed on April 2, 1980, between Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, under which Andhra Pradesh was designated to implement the project. According to the Andhra Pradesh State Reorganization Act (APRA), 2014, the Polavaram Irrigation Project was classified as a national project. In reply to an RTI inquiry, the Ministry of Jal Shakti stated that the maximum height of the Polavaram Project's concrete dam, measured from the deepest foundation level (-18.50m) to the top of the bridge, is 72.60 meters. The project's initial cost was ₹10,151.04 crore in 2005-06, which escalated to ₹55,548.87 crore by 2019

 

4. Challenges

 

• Although no detailed study has been conducted on the potential submergence of Malkangiri district due to the backwaters from the Polavaram project, the Odisha State government submitted to the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) in 2016 that the project would submerge 7,656 hectares of land, including forest areas, and displace over 6,800 people, including 5,916 tribals in Malkangiri.
• The Ministry of Jal Shakti reported that, according to the Water Resources Department of Andhra Pradesh, the submergence in both Odisha and Chhattisgarh could be entirely prevented by implementing remedial measures, such as constructing protective embankments.
• These embankments would cover 30 km along the Sileru and Sabari rivers in Odisha and 29.12 km along the Sabari River in Chhattisgarh. In August of this year, the Ministry requested the State Pollution Control Boards of Odisha and Chhattisgarh to conduct public hearings for the construction of these embankments without further delay, as the project is at an advanced stage.
• However, the Odisha State Pollution Control Board has yet to hold a public hearing. The Odisha government had previously raised concerns about the feasibility of the embankment, citing that its construction would require the diversion of forestland and cause flooding in Odisha territory

 

5. Godavari River

 

• The Godavari River is the second-longest river in India, after the Ganges, and is often referred to as the "Dakshina Ganga" (Ganga of the South). It originates from the Trimbakeshwar hills near Nasik in Maharashtra and flows eastward through several states, including Maharashtra, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh, before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
• The river covers a total length of approximately 1,465 kilometers and is a major source of water for irrigation, drinking, and other domestic uses for the regions it flows through. It also supports a wide range of ecosystems and provides livelihood opportunities for millions of people.
• The Godavari River basin is rich in biodiversity, and the river is known for its religious and cultural significance. Several temples and pilgrimage sites are located along its course, with places like Nashik, Rajahmundry, and Bhadrachalam being important religious hubs.
• The Godavari River plays a critical role in the economy of southern India, particularly in agriculture, by providing irrigation to large areas of land, especially in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The Godavari basin is one of the most fertile regions in India, supporting the cultivation of rice, cotton, and other crops.
• The river also faces challenges such as pollution, water management issues, and the impact of large-scale development projects, including dams and irrigation schemes. To address these concerns, the government and various organizations are working on initiatives for sustainable water use and conservation in the Godavari River basin

 

For Prelims: Godavari River, Krishna River and their tributaries   For Mains: GS I - Indian Geography

 

Source: The Hindu