2. About National Investigation Agency (NIA)

• The National Investigation Agency (NIA) is a federal counter-terrorism law enforcement agency in India.
• It was established in 2008 after the Mumbai terror attack the same year.
• The NIA is empowered to deal with the investigation of terror-related crimes across states without special permission from the states under written proclamation from the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• The primary mandate of the National Investigation Agency is to investigate and prosecute offences that have national and cross-border implications, specifically focusing on terrorism, insurgency, and other related matters.
• The NIA is headquartered in New Delhi and has 12 regional offices across the country.
• It is headed by a Director General of Police (DGP) rank officer.
• The NIA has a team of highly trained and experienced officers who are experts in counter-terrorism investigations.
• The NIA has been successful in investigating and prosecuting several high-profile terrorism cases, including the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, the 2012 Pune bombing, the 2013 Hyderabad blasts, and the 2014 Pathankot attack.
• The NIA has also played a key role in disrupting terrorist networks and preventing terrorist attacks.
• It has arrested several senior terrorist operatives and seized a large quantity of arms and ammunition.

3. The Changes Made under the NIA (Amendment) Act 2019

The National Investigation Agency (Amendment) Act, 2019, brought significant changes and enhancements to the powers and jurisdiction of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in India. The amendments aimed to strengthen the agency's ability to combat terrorism and other transnational crimes effectively.

The key changes made under the NIA (Amendment) Act, 2019

• The amendment expanded the jurisdiction of the NIA. Previously, the agency could investigate cases related to terrorism and certain other offences listed in the NIA Act.
• The Act adds new offences to the list of scheduled offences that can be investigated by the NIA. These include

• This extension of jurisdiction gives the NIA greater reach and authority in handling cases with international ramifications.
•  The amendment allowed for the establishment of special courts for the trial of NIA cases.
• These courts are designated to expedite the trial process and ensure that cases are heard and disposed of more quickly, particularly in terrorism-related cases.
• The NIA (Amendment) Act introduced provisions for the protection of witnesses.
• It empowers the NIA to request the central government to issue orders for the protection of witnesses.
• Ensuring the safety of witnesses is crucial for the successful prosecution of cases, especially in terrorism-related trials.
• The amended law allows the NIA to seize and attach properties that are believed to be the proceeds of terrorism or used for terrorism-related activities.
• This provision is essential in disrupting the financial networks of terrorist organizations.
• The NIA can now request the central government to seek extradition of individuals involved in terrorism and other offences under the NIA Act.
• This provision facilitates the extradition of accused persons from foreign countries to face trial in India.
• The central government has the authority to designate session courts as NIA Special Courts.
• These courts are responsible for the trial of NIA cases and follow the procedures outlined in the NIA Act.
• The NIA Act includes a schedule listing offences that fall under its jurisdiction.
• The amendment allows for offences in this schedule to be amended by the central government through notification.
• This flexibility allows for the inclusion of new offences based on emerging threats and challenges.
• The NIA (Amendment) Act includes provisions to enhance transparency and accountability in the agency's functioning.
• It mandates the submission of an annual report on its activities to the central government, which is then laid before both houses of Parliament.

4. The Way Forward

THE PLACES OF WORSHIP ACT

1. Context

Rhetorical claims cannot be grounds for challenging the validity of a legislative enactment like the Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act of 1991, the Gyanvapi mosque management has argued in the Supreme Court.

2. The Places of Worship Act and its Provisions 

The long title describes it as “An Act to prohibit conversion of any place of worship and to provide for the maintenance of the religious character of any place of worship as it existed on the 15th day of August, 1947, and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”

 

Section 3 of the Act bars the conversion, in full or part, of a place of worship of any
religious denomination into a place of worship of a different religious denomination or even a different segment of the same religious denomination.

Section 4(1) declares that the religious character of a place of worship “shall continue to be the same as it existed” on August 15, 1947.

 

Section 4(2) says any suit or legal proceeding with respect to the conversion of the religious character of any place of worship existing on August 15, 1947, pending before any court, shall abate and no fresh suit or legal proceedings shall be instituted.

 

The proviso to this subsection saves suits, appeals and legal proceedings that are pending on the date of commencement of the Act, if they pertain to the conversion of the religious character of a place of worship after the cut-off date.

Section 5 stipulates that the Act shall not apply to the Ramjanmabhoomi-Babri Masjid case, and to any suit, appeal or proceeding relating to it.

At least two petitions challenging the Act are pending before the Supreme Court.

 

The law has been challenged on the ground that it bars judicial review, which is a basic feature of the Constitution, imposes an “arbitrary irrational retrospective cutoff date”, and abridges the right to religion of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs.

3. Reasons for bringing of the act

• The Act was brought by the  Prime Minister P V Narasimha Rao at a time when the Ram temple movement was at its peak.
• The Babri Masjid was still standing, but L K Advani’s rath yatra, his arrest in Bihar and the firing on kar sevaks in Uttar Pradesh had raised communal tensions.

Moving the Bill in Parliament, then Home Minister S B Chavan said: “It is considered necessary to adopt these measures in view of the controversies arising from time to time with regard to conversion of places of worship which tend to vitiate the communal atmosphere Adoption of this Bill will effectively prevent any new controversies from arising in respect of conversion of any place of worship…”

4. Supreme Court verdict

• The constitutional validity of the 1991 Act was not under challenge, nor had it been examined before the Supreme Court Bench that heard the Ramjanmaboomi-Babri Masjid title suit.
• Even so, the court, while disagreeing with certain conclusions drawn by the Allahabad High Court about the Act, made specific observations in its support.
• “In providing a guarantee for the preservation of the religious character of places of public worship as they existed on 15 August 1947 and against the conversion of places of public worship, Parliament determined that independence from colonial rule furnishes a constitutional basis for healing the injustices of the past by providing the confidence to every religious community that their places of worship will be preserved and that their character will not be altered,” the court said.

5. Constitutional obligations

• The law addresses itself to the State as much as to every citizen of the nation.
• The State, has by enacting the law, enforced a constitutional commitment and operationalised its constitutional obligations to uphold the equality of all religions and secularism which is a part of the basic features of the Constitution.
• The Places of Worship Act imposes a non-derogable obligation towards enforcing our commitment to secularism under the Indian Constitution.
• The law is hence a legislative instrument designed to protect the secular features of the Indian polity, which is one of the basic features of the Constitution.
• The Places of Worship Act is a legislative intervention which preserves non-retrogression as an essential feature of our secular values.

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: The Places of Worship Act, secularism, Indian Constitution, Ramjanmaboomi-Babri Masjid title suit,  For Mains: 1. What is the Places of Worship Act and discuss its constitutional obligations (250 words)

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

WINDFALL TAX

1. Context

The government on (December 2) withdrew the windfall gains tax on domestic production of crude oil and export of diesel, petrol, and aviation turbine fuel (ATF), scrapping the levy that was introduced 30 months ago amid a surge in the prices of crude oil and key fuels in the international market in the wake of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.

2.Windfall tax

• It is designed to tax the profits a company derives from an external, sometimes unprecedented event-for instance, the energy price rise as a result of the Russia –Ukraine conflict.
• These are profits that cannot be attributed to something the firm actively did, like an investment strategy or an expansion of business.
• The U.S Congressional Research Services (CRS)defines a windfall as an unearned, unanticipated gain in income through no additional effort or expense.
• Government typically levies this as a one-off tax retrospectively over and above the normal rates of tax.
• Finance Minister explained the introduction of the windfall tax as a way to rein in the “phenomenal profits" made by some oil refineries who chose to export fuel to reap the benefits of skyrocketing global prices which affected domestic supplies.

3.Rationale behind tax

• Pandemic recovery and supply issues resulting from the Russia –Ukraine conflict shored up energy demands, which in turn have driven up global prices.
• The rising prices meant huge and record profits for energy companies while resulting in hefty gas and electricity bills for households in major and smaller economies.
• The UN chief urged all governments to tax these excessive profits and use the funds to support the most vulnerable people through these difficult times.

4.Windfall tax in India

• In July, India announced a windfall tax on domestic crude oil producers who it believed were reaping the benefits of the high oil prices.
• It also imposed an additional excise levy on diesel, petrol, and air turbine fuel (ATF) exports.
• India's case was different from other countries, as it was still importing discounted Russian oil.

Windfall tax was targeted mainly at Reliance Industries ltd and Russian Oil major Rosneft –backed Nayara Energy, who the government believed were making a killing on exporting large volumes of fuel made from discounted Russian oil at the cost of the domestic market.

5.Purpose tax

5.1.Reducing trade deficit

Analysts also saw the windfall tax as a way for the centre to narrow the country's widened trade deficit.

 

5.2.Funding welfare schemes

It will also be led to the redistribution of unexpected gains when high prices benefit producers at the expense of consumers, to funding social welfare schemes, and as a supplementary revenue stream for the government.

6.Issues in imposing tax

• Since windfall taxes are imposed retrospectively and are often influenced by unexpected events, they can brew uncertainties in the market about future taxes.
• German economist Andreas Peichl said that such taxes are populist and politically opportune in the short term.
• IMF said that taxes in response to price surges may suffer from design problems given their expedient and political nature.
• It will reduce future investment because prospective investors will internalize the likelihood of potential taxes when making investment decisions.
• There is another argument about what exactly constitutes true windfall profits, how it can be determined, and what level of profit is normal or excessive.

Another issue is who should be taxed only the big companies responsible for the bulk of high-priced sales or smaller companies as well as raising the question of whether producers with revenues or profits below a certain threshold should be exempt.

 

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Windfall tax, crude oil For Mains: what is windfall tax and why reasons for imposing it in India. (250 words).

 

AJMER DARGAH

 

 

1. Context

 

On November 27, an Ajmer court accepted a petition from the Hindu Sena. The petition claims that there is a Shiva temple situated beneath the revered Ajmer Sharif dargah and requests that an archaeological survey should be conducted to ascertain the same. This case emerges amid a series of similar legal disputes in India, where claims have been made regarding the existence of Hindu temples beneath prominent Islamic religious sites.

 

2.Ajmer Dargah

• Over the centuries, the Ajmer Dargah has become one of the most significant Sufi shrines in the subcontinent, symbolizing historical importance, spiritual unity, and cultural heritage.
• Dargahs are shrines built over the graves of respected religious figures, typically Sufi saints. The Ajmer Dargah is the tomb of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (also spelled Muinuddin or Mu’in al-din), affectionately known as Gharib Nawaz, who played a crucial role in spreading Sufism across the region. The shrine was constructed by the Mughal emperor Humayun to honor Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti.
• Historical records from the Siyar-ul-Auliya, a detailed biography of Sufi saints, suggest that Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti arrived in Ajmer from Persia around 1192 CE, laying the foundation of the Chishti Sufi order in India. His teachings centered on universal love, peace, and spiritual equality.
• The Ajmer Dargah complex exemplifies Indo-Islamic architecture. The white marble shrine, richly embellished with silver and gold accents, showcases the architectural brilliance of the medieval era.
• The main entrance, known as the Nizam Gate, was a donation from the Nizam of Hyderabad in the 19th century, reflecting the broad reverence for the saint. According to Explore Rajasthan, the Ajmer Dargah is a “true representation of the Mughal architectural style,” blending influences from Humayun to Shah Jahan.
• The saint's tomb is enclosed by a silver railing and surrounded by a marble screen. Nearby, a prayer room built by Chimni Begum, the daughter of Shah Jahan, serves as a peaceful space exclusively for women.
• The Ajmer Dargah has also played a role in India’s cultural diplomacy, especially with its neighboring countries. Notable figures, including former US President Barack Obama, who offered a chadar, and leaders from neighboring nations like Pervez Musharraf, General Zia-ul-Haq, Benazir Bhutto, and Sheikh Hasina, have visited the shrine personally

 

3. Significance of Ajmer City

 

• Ajmer, formerly known as Ajaymeru, was once the capital of the Chauhans, a Rajput clan that governed areas of present-day Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh from the 7th to the 12th centuries CE. Ajaydeva is credited with founding the city in the mid-12th century.

• The town was looted and destroyed by the Afghan invader Muhammad of Ghor after he defeated Prithviraj III (commonly known as Prithviraj Chauhan) in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE. The Ghurid forces killed, plundered, and "ruined the pillars and foundations of the idol temples" in Ajaymeru, as noted by Har Bilas Sarda, an Ajmer-based jurist, in his book Ajmer: Historical and Descriptive (1911). Sarda’s account serves as a key historical reference in the petition filed before the court.

• The city remained in ruins for nearly 400 years before experiencing a revival during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556–1605). The construction of the mausoleum occurred sometime in the second half of the 15th century

4. Sufism

 

• Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, developed between the 7th and 10th centuries as a response to the growing orthodoxy of the clergy and the increasing materialism of the ummah. In Islamic texts, Sufism is referred to as tasawwuf.

• Sufis adopted a more ascetic and devotional approach to Islam, often engaging in various mystical practices. Over time, Sufi practitioners formed different orders, each centered around the teachings of a particular teacher or wali.

• The Sufi traditions, particularly those of the Chishti order, to which figures like Moinuddin, and later Sufi masters such as Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, and Nasiruddin Mahmud Chiragh Dehlavi of Delhi belonged, incorporated many local practices that were often considered heretical by orthodox Islam. The Chishti saints in India emphasized messages of tolerance and inclusivity

Significance of Sufism in history   Sufism has played a profound role in the history of Islam, particularly in terms of its cultural, spiritual, and social impact. The significance of Sufism can be understood from various perspectives:   Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam, emphasizing direct personal experience of God through deep spiritual practices. It stresses inner purity, asceticism, and devotion, helping individuals seek a deeper connection with the Divine. The core of Sufi belief lies in the idea of divine love, where followers strive to attain a state of intimacy with God, often symbolized through practices such as remembrance of God (dhikr), whirling (in the case of the Mevlevi order), and poetry (as seen in the works of Rumi) Sufism has greatly influenced Islamic culture, particularly in the fields of literature, poetry, music, and art. Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafez, and Iqbal have left an indelible mark on the spiritual and intellectual heritage of the Muslim world. Sufi music, including the qawwali tradition, also played an essential role in popularizing Islamic mysticism, creating a space for communal worship and emotional expression Sufi orders often became centers of social welfare, providing education, charity, and support to the marginalized. This made Sufism particularly appealing in regions where social stratification and religious dogma were entrenched. The Chishti order in India, for example, promoted a message of tolerance, unity, and inclusivity, which helped integrate diverse communities within the Islamic fold, transcending caste, class, and ethnic barriers Sufism was a crucial factor in the spread of Islam in regions outside the Arabian Peninsula, especially in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Rather than through forceful conquest, Islam spread through the work of Sufi missionaries who engaged with local cultures, respecting indigenous beliefs while offering a more inclusive and personal approach to spirituality. In India, Sufi saints such as Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya, and Baqi Billah played key roles in converting large sections of the population to Islam, primarily through their teachings of love, peace, and community service Sufism contributed significantly to the philosophical and theological development of Islam. It helped shape discussions on topics like the nature of the soul, the concept of God, and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment. The idea of the "Perfect Human" (al-Insān al-Kāmil) in Sufism, often epitomized by figures like Imam Ali or Rumi, emphasized the potential of human beings to achieve a harmonious connection with the divine. Sufi leaders and their orders have historically influenced political dynamics, either by aligning with or opposing ruling powers. For example, the Sufis played a significant role in Mughal India, where their close relationship with the emperors often helped shape the political landscape, while some orders like the Naqshbandi had a more politically active role. The Bektashi order, in the Ottoman Empire, had a profound impact on both the religious and political spheres, bridging the gap between Islamic spirituality and governance Sufism has been a bridge for interfaith dialogue, promoting understanding between Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity, especially in South Asia. Sufi teachings have often resonated with the universal truths shared by different religions, fostering a sense of unity and coexistence. Sufi shrines and their inclusive nature have been welcoming to people from various faiths, which helped develop an environment of religious tolerance and spiritual exchange

 

 

For Prelims: Indian architecture, Sufism   For Mains: GS I - Indian History & Culture

 

Source: Indianexpress

CASH RESERVE RATIO (CRR)

 

1. Context

 

The Reserve Bank of India’s three-day monetary policy review started on (December 4). Although there seems to be a broad consensus that the repo rate — the rate at which RBI lends to other banks — is likely to remain unchanged at 6.5 per cent, there is an expectation that the central bank may announce a cut in the cash reserve ratio (CRR).

 

2. What is the Cash Reserve Ratio(CRR) ?

 

The Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is the percentage of a commercial bank's total deposits that it is required to keep as reserves in the form of cash with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The banks are not allowed to use this reserved amount for lending or investment purposes.

The Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) represents the portion of a bank’s total deposits that must be held as liquid cash with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The RBI periodically determines the CRR rate, which is currently set at 4.5%. Banks do not earn interest on this reserve amount.

• While the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is responsible for decisions related to the repo rate and policy stance, the RBI independently manages liquidity measures.

• Analysts suggest that the RBI might lower the CRR by either 25 basis points (bps) or 50 bps. (Note: One basis point equals 0.01%). If implemented, this would mark the first reduction in over 4.5 years.

• To curb rupee volatility resulting from sustained Foreign Portfolio Investor (FPI) outflows and the strengthening of the US dollar, the RBI has been actively selling dollars in the foreign exchange market

3.What will be the impact of a CRR cut?

 

If the RBI reduces the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 50 basis points (bps), it would release approximately ₹1.10 lakh crore to ₹1.2 lakh crore in bank liquidity currently held with the central bank. A smaller cut of 25 bps would make around ₹55 crore to ₹60 crore available to banks.

• This additional liquidity could be utilized by banks to enhance lending, which in turn would support economic growth.

• The RBI last reduced the CRR during the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, lowering it from 4% to 3% on March 28, 2020, after maintaining it unchanged for seven years. Since then, the CRR has been increased three times, with the most recent revision to 4.5% on May 21, 2022

4. Statutory Liquid Ratio (SLR)

 

The Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) is the minimum percentage of a commercial bank's Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) that it must maintain in the form of liquid assets, such as cash, gold, or government-approved securities. The SLR is a requirement set by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and is part of the monetary policy framework to regulate inflation and ensure the stability of the banking system

 

Composition of Liquid Assets:

• The assets that banks can use to maintain the SLR include:
  • Cash
  • Gold
  • Government bonds and securities (mainly government-approved bonds).

5. CRR vs SLR

 

Feature	SLR (Statutory Liquidity Ratio)	CRR (Cash Reserve Ratio)
What is maintained	Liquid assets (cash, gold, government securities)	Cash reserves with RBI
Earnings	Earns interest on government securities	No interest earned
Regulation	Regulated by the RBI for liquidity control	Regulated by the RBI for inflation control
Impact on Lending	Higher SLR means less funds available for lending	Higher CRR means less funds available for lending

 

 

6. Why do banks have to reserve cash with RBI?

 

• Since a portion of a bank's deposits is held with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), it ensures the safety of the funds in case of emergencies, making the cash available when customers withdraw their deposits.
• During periods of high inflation, the government aims to prevent excess money from circulating in the economy. The Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) plays a role in controlling inflation.
• When there is a risk of high inflation, the RBI raises the CRR, requiring banks to hold more money in reserves, which reduces the amount available for lending and slows down the flow of money in the economy.
• On the other hand, when the need arises to inject funds into the economy, the RBI may reduce the CRR.
• This allows banks to lend more to businesses and industries, fostering investment and boosting economic growth. Lower CRR also contributes to accelerating the growth rate of the economy

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development   For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC CSE 2017) 1. It decides the RBI’s benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only Answer (a)   It decides the RBI’s benchmark interest rates: This statement is correct. The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is responsible for setting the benchmark interest rates, such as the repo rate, which influence borrowing and lending rates in the economy. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year: This statement is incorrect. The MPC consists of 6 members (not 12). It includes the Governor of the RBI and the Deputy Governor of the RBI, along with three other members appointed by the government of India. The committee is reconstituted every three years, not annually. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister: This statement is incorrect. The MPC is chaired by the Governor of the RBI, not the Union Finance Minister. Thus, the correct answer is (a) 1 only

Source: Indianexpress

 

INDIA - CHINA BORDER DISPUTE

 

 

1. Context

 

Days after completing the process of troop disengagement at two friction points along the Line of Actual Control in eastern Ladakh, India and China held the first official-level talks in New Delhi Thursday, “reflected on the lessons” learnt from the military standoff and agreed on the need for “effective border management” and “maintenance of peace and tranquillity” as part of bilateral pacts.

 

2. Standoff between India and China

 

The standoff between India and China, particularly along the Line of Actual Control (LAC), has been a recurring issue rooted in historical disputes, strategic rivalries, and geopolitical ambitions.

 

Here is an analysis of the situation:

 

Border Dispute:

• The India-China border is divided into three sectors:
  • Western Sector: Aksai Chin, claimed by India but controlled by China.
  • Middle Sector: Less contentious, but areas like Barahoti in Uttarakhand witness minor disputes.
  • Eastern Sector: Arunachal Pradesh, claimed by China as part of South Tibet.
• The Sino-Indian War of 1962 remains a significant point of contention, with unresolved border claims.

Recent Standoffs

• Doklam (2017):

  • A 73-day standoff occurred at the tri-junction of India, China, and Bhutan.
  • Triggered by Chinese road construction near Bhutanese territory, viewed as a threat to India's strategic Siliguri Corridor (Chicken’s Neck).

• Galwan Valley (2020):

  • Marked by the first casualties in 45 years; 20 Indian soldiers and an unknown number of Chinese troops died.
  • Followed by a series of disengagement talks.

• Eastern Ladakh (2020-present):

  • Ongoing disputes in areas like Pangong Tso Lake, Depsang Plains, and Hot Springs.
  • Despite disengagement in some areas, tensions persist.

 

3. Line of Actual Control (LAC)

 

The Line of Actual Control is a 4,057-kilometer-long (2,520 mile) disputed border line that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory in the Himalayan region. It runs through the disputed border regions of Ladakh, Aksai Chin, and other areas along the India-China border.

Key characteristics of the LAC include:

• Undefined Demarcation: Unlike most international borders, the LAC is not precisely demarcated or delineated. It is essentially a loose line of perception where both Indian and Chinese troops are positioned.
• Historical Context: The LAC emerged after the Sino-Indian War of 1962, which resulted in a ceasefire but did not resolve the underlying territorial disputes.
• Disputed Sections: There are multiple areas along the LAC where both countries have different perceptions of where the actual line should be, leading to occasional tensions and military standoffs.
• Strategic Importance: The region is geographically challenging, with high-altitude terrain including mountain passes, glaciers, and rugged landscapes.
• Periodic Tensions: In recent years, particularly in 2020, there have been significant military confrontations between Indian and Chinese troops, most notably in the Galwan Valley region of Ladakh.

The LAC is divided into three sectors:

• Western Sector (Ladakh)
• Middle Sector (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh)
• Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh)

 

4. India-China Relations during the Nehruvian Era

 

The India-China relationship during the Nehruvian era (1947–1964) was characterized by idealism, cooperation, and eventual conflict. It began with mutual admiration and solidarity as post-colonial nations but deteriorated into distrust and confrontation, culminating in the Sino-Indian War of 1962

 

Key Phases India China relations during Nehruvian Era

 

Early Friendship (1947–1954)

• Common Goals and Anti-Colonial Sentiments:

  • India and China, as newly independent nations, sought to rebuild their societies and oppose colonialism and imperialism.
  • Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru admired China’s cultural legacy and revolutionary transformation under the Communist regime led by Mao Zedong.

• Support for China on the Global Stage:

  • India was one of the first non-communist nations to recognize the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949.
  • Nehru supported China's entry into the United Nations, arguing that the PRC represented the Chinese people rather than Taiwan (Republic of China).

• Signing of the Panchsheel Agreement (1954):

  • India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement, based on five principles of peaceful coexistence:
    1. Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
    2. Non-aggression.
    3. Non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
    4. Equality and mutual benefit.
    5. Peaceful coexistence.
  • The slogan "Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai" symbolized the optimism in bilateral ties

Emerging Tensions (1954–1959)

• The Tibetan Question:

  • China's annexation of Tibet (1950–51) and its suppression of Tibetan uprisings created friction.
  • India’s grant of asylum to the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959 after the failed Tibetan rebellion was viewed as interference by China.

• Border Disputes:

  • Despite the Panchsheel Agreement, India and China had unresolved territorial disputes:
    • Aksai Chin (Western Sector): Controlled by China, claimed by India.
    • Arunachal Pradesh (Eastern Sector): Claimed by China as South Tibet.
  • Discovery of China's construction of a road in Aksai Chin (1957–58) intensified tensions

Deterioration and War (1959–1962)

• Border Incursions and Skirmishes:

  • China’s aggressive patrols and incursions along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) exacerbated hostilities.
  • Nehru’s "Forward Policy" (establishing advanced Indian outposts along the disputed border) was seen as provocative by China.

• Sino-Indian War (October–November 1962):

  • China's invasion of Aksai Chin and parts of Arunachal Pradesh marked a turning point.
  • The war exposed India's military vulnerabilities, resulting in territorial losses in Aksai Chin.
  • China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew from Arunachal Pradesh but retained control over Aksai Chin.

5.‘De-induction’ ‘Disengagement’ and ‘De-escalation

 

The terms ‘De-induction’, ‘Disengagement’, and ‘De-escalation’ are often used in the context of military and diplomatic operations, particularly in situations of conflict or standoff. They are critical stages in reducing tensions and maintaining peace, especially in border conflicts like those between India and China along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

 

Differences Between the Terms

Term	Scope	Focus	Finality
De-induction	Broader withdrawal	Long-term stability	Final withdrawal of troops
Disengagement	Specific sites/areas	Preventing skirmishes	Temporary or site-specific
De-escalation	Entire conflict zone	Reducing overall tensions	Long-term trust-building

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.   For Mains: General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.“Belt and Road Initiative” is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of : (UPSC CSE 2016) (a) African Union (b) Brazil (c) European Union (d) China   Answer (d)   The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a global development strategy launched by China in 2013 under President Xi Jinping. It aims to enhance connectivity and cooperation among countries primarily in Asia, Africa, and Europe through infrastructure projects, investments, and trade networks. The BRI includes two main components: Silk Road Economic Belt: Land-based connectivity linking China to Europe through Central Asia. 21st Century Maritime Silk Road: Sea-based routes connecting China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and beyond. BRI is often in the news due to its economic, geopolitical, and strategic implications for participating countries and its criticism for creating debt traps Mains 1.‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour. (UPSC CSE GS2, 2017) 2.With respect to the South China sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and over flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China. (UPSC CSE GS2, 2014)

Source: Indianexpress