SWACHH BHARAT 2.0
1. Context
India has more than 3,000 legacy waste dumpsites, with 2,424 of them having a waste load of more than 1,000 tonnes. The Central government launched the legacy waste management project as part of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) 2.0 in October 2021, for a period of five years till 2026. However, more than halfway through the time period, only 471 out of the 2,424, that is 19.43% of dumpsites have been completely remediated.
2. Impacts of Poor Sanitation
- Exposure to contaminated drinking water and food with pathogen-laden human waste is a major cause of diarrhea and can cause cholera, trachoma, intestinal worms, etc, leading to the “stunting” of huge swathes of our children.
- Poor hygiene and waste management practices also impact the environment with untreated sewage flowing directly into water bodies and affecting coastal and marine ecosystems, contaminating soil and air, and exposing millions to disease.
- A study by the World Bank states that the absence of toilets and conventional sanitation costs India 6.4 percent of its GDP in 2006.
- The economic impact of poor sanitation for India is at least $38.5 billion every year under health, education, access time, and tourism.
3. Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
- The launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) had a unique goal — to achieve universal sanitation coverage and to make the country Open Defecation Free (ODF).
- By offering financial incentives for building household toilets, as well as community toilets for slums and migrant populations, the government gave a huge fillip to the toilet infrastructure.
- To bring changes to the age-old idea that toilets in the home were unclean, the government ran several programs with the participation of the private sector and NGOs to educate the population on the benefits of ODF in what is acclaimed as one of the largest behavior change programs in the world. From 2014 to 2020, more than 10 crore toilets were constructed. The country declared itself ODF on October 2, 2019.
4. Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 (SBM 2.0)
The second phase of the project, which commenced in 2020 and is expected to run till 2025, has set even more ambitious targets -sustaining the achievements of phase 1 and Ensuring that treatment of both liquid and solid waste is achieved through the help of technology and private sector engagement.
5. Light House Initiative (LHI)
The Lighthouse Initiative (LHI) commissioned by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation as part of the Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav is to be implemented through PPP, across villages in 75 Gram panchayats in 15 states in Phase 1.
LHI is based on the principle of inclusive sanitation and leaving no one behind.
5.1 Aim:
LHI aims to effectively implement solid and liquid waste management structures by employing a participatory and consultative approach through mobilization of the village communities, corporates, district and block administration, and gram panchayat officers.
5.2 Significance of Light House Initiative (LHI)
- Joint ownership and accountability between local governments, communities, and corporates will ensure the success of the initiative.
- Managing household and plastic waste as well as wastewater at a village level, defining and implementing solutions to convert waste to achieve a remunerative return not only creates hygienic surroundings for the communities but allows them to become economically self-sufficient in the medium to long term.
- Recovery of precious grey water through minimal treatment and treatment of sewage helps tackle scarce water resources, encouraging reuse and conserving water bodies.
6. India Sanitation Coalition (ISC)
- The India Sanitation Coalition (ISC) is a multi-stakeholder platform that creates meaningful collaborations.
- These stakeholders include the private sector, government, financial institutions, civil society groups, media, donors, etc.
- ISC is recognized as the official intersection between the government and the private sector for engagement in helping build solid and liquid waste management infrastructure sustainably.
- In choosing to partner with ISC on the LHI initiative and the early batch of corporates that have come forward such as ITC, Jindal Steel and Power, JSW, Nayara, HCL, and foundations such as Ambuja Cement, Tata Trusts and Aga Khan Trust, the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation has recognized the benefits of working with the private sector.
- Understanding the on-ground need for solid and liquid waste management infrastructure has included activities such as the construction of soak pits, waste stabilization ponds, drainage channels, compost pits, collection and segregations sheds, and biogas plants as part of the Rs1,40,881 crore that will be provided over the next five years. The private sector will supplement this through CSR funding.
6.1 Management and Technology Expertise
- The ISC will continue to focus on the government’s position on the thematic interlinkages between WASH and sectors such as health, education, gender, nutrition, and livelihoods.
- This will include urban and rural challenges and create viable programs where government funding will be used primarily for infrastructure building and the private sector comes in as a strategic partner providing expertise in management and technology.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0, Light House Initiative (LHI), India Sanitation Coalition (ISC), Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).
For Mains:1. What is Swachh Bharat Mission and explain the impact and achievements of the Swachh Bharat Mission-U and AMRUT?
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Source: The Indian Express
CHEETAH PROJECT STEERING COMMITTEE
1. Context
Some good news for wildlife enthusiasts: Odisha’s leopard population has increased by 22%, rising from 568 to 696 in two years between 2022 and 2024, despite ongoing concerns about poaching and the illegal trade of leopard skins in the State.
2. Cheetah Reintroduction Project in India
- The Cheetah Reintroduction Project in India formally commenced on September 17, 2022, with the objective of restoring the population of cheetahs, which were declared extinct in the country in 1952.
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The project involves the translocation of cheetahs from South Africa and Namibia to Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
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20 radio-collared cheetahs were translocated from South Africa (12 cheetahs) and Namibia (8 cheetahs) to Kuno National Park.
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In March 2023, India announced the birth of 4 cubs to one of the eight cheetahs relocated from Namibia.
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The cheetahs underwent quarantine and were then shifted to larger acclimatization enclosures.
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Currently, there are 11 cheetahs in free-ranging condition and 5 animals, including a cub, in quarantine enclosures.
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Dedicated monitoring teams ensure round-the-clock monitoring of the free-ranging cheetahs.
3. Significance of Cheetah Reintroduction
- India as historical Cheetah habitat: The Cheetah habitat in India historically is from Jammu to Tamil Nadu, very widespread and they were found in any habitat dry forests, grasslands, scrub forests, etc.
- Pray base: Experts believe that as long as there is enough food and there is protection they will regenerate on their own. A‘prey base’ that can sustain the population and that has already been prepared at the Kuno-Palpur sanctuary.
- Cheetahs will help restore open forest and grassland ecosystems in India.
- The cheetah is a flagship grassland species; whose conservation also helps in preserving other grassland species in the predator food chain.
- This will help conserve biodiversity and enhance the ecosystem services like water security, carbon sequestration, and soil moisture conservation, benefiting society at large.
- It will also lead to enhanced livelihood opportunities for the local community through eco-development and ecotourism activities.
4. About Cheetah Project Steering Committee
Mandate:
- To monitor the progress of the Cheetah reintroduction programme and advise the Madhya Pradesh Forest Department and the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
- To decide on opening up the cheetah habitat for eco-tourism and,
- Suggest regulations and ways to involve the local community in the project activities.
Members and head:
- The 11-member Cheetah Project Steering Committee comprises national and international experts.
- Several international experts have been involved in the cheetah translocation project from Namibia and South Africa.
- It will be led by Rajesh Gopal, secretary general, of Global Tiger Forum and closely associated with Project Tiger.
Duration: The committee will be in force for two years and will convene at least one meeting every month, besides conducting field visits to Kuno National Park.
5. About Kuno National Park
- Kuno National Park is a national park in the Sheopur district of Madhya Pradesh (MP).
- It was established in 1981 as a wildlife sanctuary. In 2018, it was given the status of a national park.
- It is a part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests.
- Kuno River, a tributary of the Chambal River flows through the National Park.
- Eight cheetahs from Namibia and 12 from South Africa were transported to India and introduced at Kuno National Park (KNP).
6. Why is Kuno National Park (KNP) unsuitable
- The lack of sufficient prey in Kuno National Park (KNP) was a "concerning" situation.
- In KNP, chital is the most abundant prey for carnivorous species. At present, there is about 20 chital-the cheetah's main prey-per square kilometer available at the KNP, a sharp decline from the nearly 60 chitals per square km that could be found in the park in 2014.
- This amount of chitals would sustain a maximum of 15 cheetahs and the other 5 should have been shifted elsewhere.
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For Prelims: Project Cheetah, Kuno National Park, Cheetah Reintroduction Project, and NationalTiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the objectives and scope of Project Cheetah, a proposed reintroduction project aimed at restoring cheetah populations in a specific region. Examine the potential benefits and challenges associated with such an initiative. (250 words).
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Previous year Questions
1. Recently there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat in Gujarat to which one of the following sites? (UPSC 2017)
A. Corbett National Park
B. Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
C. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
D. Sariska National Park
Answer: B
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Source: PIB
SICKLE CELL DISEASE
1. Context
Sickle cell disease shortens life by at least twenty years.Slow-progressing organ failure is common in older patients, and acute chest syndrome, a form of lung injury, is a significant cause of death among the young. The symptoms vary among patients, leading to a wide range of complications
2. What are Sickle Cell Disease and Thalassaemia?
Sickle cell disease is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the shape and function of red blood cells. Red blood cells are normally round and flexible, but in people with sickle cell disease, they become sickle-shaped or C-shaped. These sickle-shaped cells can get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow and causing pain, fatigue, and other serious health problems.
Symptoms of sickle cell disease can include:
- Painful episodes, called crises, that can last for days or even weeks
- Fatigue
- Shortness of breath
- Dizziness
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
- Swelling of the hands and feet
- Anemia (a lack of red blood cells)
- Frequent infections
Types of Sickle Cell Disease
There are several different types of sickle cell disease, depending on the specific mutations in the haemoglobin gene. The most common type is sickle cell anaemia (HbSS), which occurs when a person inherits two copies of the gene mutation from each parent. Other types of sickle cell disease include sickle cell-beta thalassemia (HbSB), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a beta-thalassemia gene mutation, and sickle cell-C disease (HbSC), which occurs when a person inherits one copy of the sickle cell gene mutation and one copy of a haemoglobin C gene mutation.
Causes of Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle cell disease is caused by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene. Hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. The mutation causes the haemoglobin to be misshapen, which makes the red blood cells sickle-shaped.
2.1. Thalassaemia
Thalassaemia is a group of inherited blood disorders that affect the production of haemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. People with thalassaemia have less haemoglobin than normal, which can lead to anaemia and other health problems.
Types of Thalassaemia
There are two main types of thalassaemia:
- Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha globin chain of haemoglobin.
- Beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta globin chain of haemoglobin.
Symptoms of Thalassaemia
The severity of thalassaemia symptoms depends on the type of thalassaemia and the severity of the mutation. Symptoms of thalassaemia can include:
- Fatigue
- Pale skin
- Shortness of breath
- Dizziness
- Slow growth
- Enlarged spleen
Causes of Thalassaemia
Thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is made up of two globin chains, alpha and beta. Alpha thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the alpha-globin chain, while beta thalassaemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that produces the beta-globin chain.
3. How Does the Therapy Work?
- Both sickle cell disease and thalassaemia are caused by errors in the gene for haemoglobin, a protein in the red blood cells that carry oxygen to organs and tissues.
- The therapy uses the patient’s own blood stem cells, which are precisely edited using Crispr-Cas9.
- A gene called BCL11A, which is crucial for switching from foetal to adult haemoglobin, is targeted by the therapy.
- Foetal haemoglobin, which is naturally present in everyone at birth, does not carry the same abnormalities as adult haemoglobin.
- The therapy uses the body’s own mechanisms to start producing more of this foetal haemoglobin, alleviating the symptoms of the two conditions.
3.1. Trial Results
- Sickle cell disease: 45 people received Casgevy. Only 29 of these patients had been in the trial long enough for the interim analysis on which the approval is based.
- All but one of these 29 trial participants had no severe pain crises for at least 12 months after treatment.
- Thalassaemia: The therapy has been administered to 54 persons with thalassaemia for the trial. Of them, 42 were in the trial long enough for the interim analysis. 3
- 9 of the 42 patients did not need a transfusion for at least 12 months after the treatment. The need for transfusion dropped by 70% in the other three.
4. Treatment Preparation and challenges
- Casgevy is a one-time treatment for which the doctor has to first collect blood stem cells from the bone marrow using a process called apheresis used to filter out the blood for different components.
- The cells are then sent to the manufacturing site where it takes about six months for them to be edited and tested.
- Before a transplant with the edited cells, the doctor gives a conditioning medicine for a few days to clear the bone marrow of other cells that will be replaced by the modified cells.
- The patient has to stay in the hospital for at least a month so that the edited cells take up residence in the bone marrow and start making red blood cells with normal haemoglobin.
- Side effects from the treatment are similar to those associated with autologous stem cell transplants, including nausea, fatigue, fever and increased risk of infection.
- While the therapy shows tremendous potential, the cost remains a significant challenge, with estimates suggesting it could be as high as $2 million per patient.
- This poses accessibility issues, especially for individuals in poorer countries.
- However, experts believe that with more research and development, prices may decrease, and local manufacturing facilities can enhance affordability.
| An estimated 30,000-40,000 children in India are born with sickle cell disease every year. India also has the largest number of children with thalassaemia major in the world about 1-1.5 lakh. Dr Chakraborty’s team is also working on gene therapy for sickle cell disease with the government’s big push. The team is currently working on the pre-clinical studies and are likely to enter clinical trial in the next few years. |
5. Conclusion
Casgevy's approval marks a significant milestone in Crispr-based therapy. While challenges exist, including pricing and accessibility, ongoing research and potential reductions in costs indicate a promising future for gene therapies. The working gene therapy for sickle cell disease with upcoming clinical trials in the pipeline.
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For Prelims: Sickle Cell Disease, thalassaemia, CrisprCas9, Noble Prize, red blood cells,
For Mains:
1. Critically analyze the challenges associated with gene therapy, including cost and accessibility, and discuss potential solutions. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Sick cell anemia (Sickle cell anemia) is caused by? (UPSSSC Chakbandi Lekhpal 2019)
A. Deficiency of folic acid
B. Abnormal levels of hemoglobin
C. Deficiency of iron
D. Decreased production of red blood cells (RBCs)
3. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC 2019)
A. A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
B. A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
C. A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
D. A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2018)
Terms Sometimes seen in news Context/Topic
1. Bell II experiment Artificial
2. Blockchain Digital/Cryptocurrency
3. CRISPR - Cas9 Particle Physics
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
5. Einstein got the Nobel Prize for (BPSC 64TH CCE 2018)
A. relativity
B. Bose-Einstein condensation
C. mass-energy equivalence
D. photoelectric effect
E. None of the above/More than one of the above
6. Who among the following scientists shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with his son? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Max Planck (b) Albert Einstein (c) William Henry Bragg (d) Enrico Fermi
7. Nobel Prize winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Metallurgy (b) Meteorology (c) Environmental protection (d) Genetics
8. Nobel Prize for Economics was instituted in the year _______ (Punjab Patwari 2016) A. 1984 B. 1962 C. 1948 D. 1968 9. Red blood cells (RBCs) have (NDA 2017)
A. no nucleus, no mitochondria, and no endoplasmic reticulum
B. nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum
C. nucleus, mitochondria but no endoplasmic reticulum
D. no mitochondria but endoplasmic reticulum is present
10. Which one of the following statements about blood elements is correct? (UPSC CAPF 2018)
A. Red blood cells number is same as that of white blood cells and platelets.
B. The number of white blood cells is more than red blood cells.
C. The number of red blood cells is the highest.
D. The number of red blood cells is lower than platelets.
Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-B, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-D, 9-A, 10-C
Mains
1. What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? (UPSC 2021)
2. The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings? (UPSC 2021)
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Source: Indianexpress
OPEC+
1. Context
OPEC and the U.S. can help ease oil prices in case there is disruption in supply due to a full-blown conflict between Israel and Iran; while OPEC has enough spare capacity to compensate for the loss of Iranian supplies, much of that capacity is in the Gulf region and potentially vulnerable to attack
2. Introduction
- The organization of petroleum exporting countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental organization, created at the Baghdad conference in 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. OPEC now has 13 member states. Iran, Iraq, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, the Republic of Congo, Angola, and Venezuela are members of OPEC.
- It aims to manage the supply of oil to set the price of oil in the world market, to avoid fluctuations that might affect the economies of both producing and purchasing countries. The stated mission of the organization is to “coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member’s countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.”
- The headquarters are in Vienna, Austria. OPEC membership is open to any country that is a substantial exporter of oil and which shares the ideals of the organization.
- Former OPEC members are Ecuador, Indonesia, and Qatar. Qatar terminated its membership on 1 January 2019.
- With the addition of another 11 allied major oil-producing countries that include Russia, the grouping is known as OPEC+.
| OPEC+ is an amalgamation of OPEC and high oil-exporting non-OPEC nations like Russia and Kazakhstan. In other words, it refers to OPEC’s cooperation with non-OPEC oil producers to affect production cuts. It came into effect around 2016 and includes countries like Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, Russia, South Sudan, and Sudan. |
3. Reasons for slashing production
- Today’s cut is the biggest of its kind since 2000 when OPEC+ members cut outputs by 10 million BPD during the covid-19 pandemic, The reduction would increase prices and be extremely beneficial for the Middle Eastern member states, to whom Europe has turned for oil after leveling sanctions against Russia since it invaded Ukraine.
- Oil prices increased after Russia invades Ukraine in February, and have since begun to soften over the past few months, before dropping sharply to under $90 in September due to fears of a recession in Europe and reduced demands from China because of its lockdown measures.
4. Who opposes this decision?
- Within the group, some are opposed to such significant cuts in oil production. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Kuwait, in particular, are said to be concerned that extended cuts would interfere with their plans to increase oil output capacity.
- Slashes in reduction and subsequently increased oil prices can be a potential threat to the US because the US government is trying to reduce the inflation rates before the mid-term elections in November. The US has not publicly accepted these attempts.
India decision-makers suggestions for the uncertain future of the international petroleum market:
- It should fill the oil caverns with strategic reserves. Prices may fall further but rather than bottom fish, it should leverage the availability of capacity to secure discounted supplies.
- Gas is economically competitive these days. It should increase its imports of gas (LNG) from Australia, Africa, and the US. This will reduce the political risks of dependency on oil supplies from the Middle East.
- It should create an institutional basis for an integrated energy policy. If there is one message we must internalize from COVID, it is the importance of collaboration and coordination.
5. India's strategic petroleum reserves
- India’s strategic reserves are the effort of a border plan to build an emergency stockpile with millions of barrels of crude oil.
- Under the first stage of the strategic petroleum reserves project, underground rock caverns with a total storage of 5.33 MMT, or about 38 million barrels of crude oil, have been commissioned at three locations-
- Vishakapatnam (1.33 MMT)
- Mangalore (1.5MMT)
- Karnataka (2.5 MMT)
- The International Energy Agency (IEA) recommends that all countries hold crude oil stocks worth 90 days of imports. India imports about 85 percent of its crude oil requirements.
- India decided to release 5 million barrels of oil from its strategic reserves as part of a coordinated challenge led by the US against the OPEC+ producer's cartel move to curb output, was the first time that New Delhi dipped into its reserves to leverage it's as a geopolitical tool.
6. International energy agency(IEA)
- The international energy agency (IEA) is an autonomous organization that works to ensure reliable, affordable, and clean energy, it was established in the wake of the 1973 (set up in 1974) Oil crisis after the OPEC cartel had shocked the world with a steep increase in oil prices.
- It is headquartered in Paris, France.
The IEA has four main areas of focus, they are
- Energy security
- Economic development
- Environmental awareness
- Engagement worldwide.
India became an associate member of the International Energy Agency in 2017.
For Prelims and Mains
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For Prelims: The international energy agency (IEA), OPEC, OPEC+,
For Mains: 1.What are OPEC and OPEC+?Explain why OPEC+ is slashing production and how it affects the major developing countries. (250 words)
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source: The Indian Express
OVERSEAS CITIZEN OF INDIA (OCI)
1. Context
In the wake of several Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card holders complaining about being reclassified as “foreigners”, the Ministry of External Affairs on Saturday (September 28) said that there were no changes made to the OCI rules
2.What is an Overseas Citizen of India Card?
- The OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) scheme, introduced in August 2005, allows for the registration of Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) who were citizens of India on or after January 26, 1950, or who were eligible to become Indian citizens on that date.
- While presenting the bill in Parliament, Home Minister LK Advani highlighted that its aim was to offer dual citizenship to the Indian diaspora.
- An OCI cardholder, who typically holds a foreign passport, is granted a multiple-entry, multi-purpose, lifelong visa to India. They are also exempt from registering with local police regardless of the duration of their stay.
- According to government data, by 2023, there were over 4.5 million registered OCI cardholders from 129 countries. The largest number of OCI cardholders were from the United States, with over 1.68 million, followed by the UK (934,000), Australia (494,000), and Canada (418,000).
- Initially, OCI cardholders were granted general parity with Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in areas like economic, financial, and educational facilities, with the exception of acquiring agricultural or plantation properties. NRIs are Indian citizens residing permanently in foreign
3. Rules regarding OCI
- OCI should not be misunderstood as "dual citizenship." It does not grant political rights such as the ability to vote, become a member of the Indian Parliament or state legislatures, or hold constitutional positions like the President, Vice President, or a Judge in the Supreme or High Courts.
- Additionally, OCI cardholders are generally not allowed to work in government positions.
- They must also obtain prior permission from the Government of India to engage in activities such as missionary work, mountaineering, or journalism.
- Furthermore, like other foreigners, OCI cardholders are required to obtain a Protected Area Permit (PAP) or Restricted Area Permit (RAP) to visit areas designated as protected or restricted by the government
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Constitutional Provisions
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4. Person of Indian Origin (PIO)
As per the Citizenship Act of 1955, you are classified as a Person of Indian Origin (PIO) if you are a foreign national and:
- You have held an Indian passport at some point in time; or
- You, your parents, grandparents, or great-grandparents were born in India as defined by the Government of India Act, 1935, or in territories that later became part of India, as long as none of them were ever citizens of Pakistan, Bangladesh, or any other country specified by the Indian government; or
- You are married to an Indian citizen or someone of Indian origin who meets the above conditions.
While Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and PIOs have similar eligibility for financial transactions in India, PIOs face some restrictions. These include the inability to:
- Hold employment in the Indian government services,
- Occupy any constitutional office,
- Engage in activities such as mountaineering, missionary work, or research in restricted areas without prior approval,
- Enter India without a valid visa
5. Non resident India (NRI)
A Non-Resident Indian (NRI) is an Indian citizen who resides outside India for an extended period, typically for purposes such as employment, business, or education. NRIs maintain their Indian citizenship but live abroad for a major part of the year. The status of an NRI is primarily defined under the Income Tax Act of 1961 and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) of 1999, which specify conditions to determine NRI status based on the period of stay in India.
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For Prelims: Citizenship Amendment Act, Minorities, Secularism, NPR, NRC,
For Mains:
1. The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked significant controversy in India. Critically examine the Act's provisions, highlighting the key concerns and potential implications. In your opinion, does the CAA violate the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution? (250 words)
2. Considering the debates surrounding the CAA, critically analyze the concept of citizenship in India. How has the concept evolved, and what are the challenges in defining and managing citizenship in a diverse democracy like India? (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
Consider the following statements: (2018) 1. Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile.
2. Once issued, the Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC 2021) (a) Legal right available to citizens only
(b) Legal right available to any person
(c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only
(d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right
3. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
4. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
5. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
6. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship. (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022)
A. 1954 B. 1971 C. 1981 D. 1966
Answers: 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D, 5-B, 6-B
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Source: The Indian Express
BIODIVERSITY AND HISTORY
1. Context
The scales of space and time have always been fascinating. In our experience, we know what a year feels like, or what a decade feels like. But I don’t have any intuition of what a century feels like, or how much changes in a millennium. Yet, to appreciate life on earth, we need to think in millions of years.
2. Life and History of Life
- Around 4.5 billion years ago, Earth formed as a hot mass of rock. Within 100 million years, it cooled enough for water to condense, leading to the creation of oceans. It took another billion years for the first living cells to emerge in these oceans.
- For the next billion years, bacteria were the only form of life, during which they developed various innovations that drastically transformed the planet.
- About 2.7 billion years ago, photosynthetic bacteria, particularly cyanobacteria, became common in the oceans.
- These organisms harnessed sunlight to produce chemical energy, and oxygen was a byproduct of this process. At the time, oxygen was scarcely present in Earth’s atmosphere.
- Over the following 300 million years, oxygen levels in the atmosphere rose to about 10%. This period, known as the Great Oxidation Event (or Oxygen Catastrophe), led to significant changes, wiping out many organisms unable to survive in the new oxygen-rich environment
3. Cellular Organism
- Multicellular life, or organisms with more than one cell, first appeared about 2.1 billion years ago. By this time, half of Earth's history had already passed, dominated entirely by single-celled organisms.
- Since then, life has evolved and diversified, spreading across the planet. Over millions of years, organisms adapted to various environments, giving rise to a wide variety of life forms.
- However, there have been periods of drastic environmental changes or catastrophic events that caused widespread extinctions.
- These events, known as mass extinctions, have occurred five times in the last 500 million years.
- They have been linked to factors such as environmental shifts, volcanic eruptions, and asteroid impacts. One such impact occurred near modern-day Mexico, creating a crater roughly 200 kilometers wide.
- This event led to the extinction of around 75% of plant and animal species, including all non-avian dinosaurs.
- This extinction event allowed mammals to evolve and occupy the ecological roles once filled by dinosaurs, shaping the world we see today. Birds are the only surviving descendants of dinosaurs
4. Contemporary and Issue of Extinction
- Many experts believe we are currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction, with species disappearing at rates estimated to be 100 times faster than the natural extinction rates of the past 20,000 years.
- This rapid loss of biodiversity is largely driven by human activities. Over the past two centuries, we have significantly increased our consumption of the Earth's energy and resources to support our expanding economy and population.
- In 1804, the global human population was 1 billion, but by 2024, it has grown to 8.17 billion. When we look at the mass of all mammals on Earth, livestock make up about 62%, humans 32%, and wild mammals only 4%.
- Nature plays a critical role in human society and the economy by providing clean air, clean water, food, fuel, healthcare, and more. A decline in biodiversity, even in species we don't directly rely on, weakens ecosystems and their ability to function properly
5. Cost of losing biodiversity
- Imagine a large company losing employees at random. A mid-level manager quits, causing temporary chaos in the team, but eventually, a junior employee steps up and fills the role. Similarly, when one species disappears from an ecosystem, another may take over its function.
- Now, consider if a janitor leaves, and the remaining staff handle the extra work. But if half of the janitors leave, cleanliness deteriorates, and the office becomes difficult to work in. This mirrors how the loss of too many species in a specific role can disrupt an ecosystem's functioning.
- When an office clerk leaves, it may seem insignificant as others can cover the role.
- However, it turns out that the clerk was central to the office’s social network, demonstrating how losing a seemingly minor role can affect the entire system. Much like ecosystems, we often don’t fully understand the importance of certain species.
- If the CEO leaves, the company loses coordination and productivity, just as the loss of a keystone species can drastically impact an ecosystem. Unlike a company, ecosystems don’t follow a designed structure—they are complex systems that evolve according to natural laws, many of which scientists are still uncovering as ecosystems continue to disappear
6. Drivers of biodiversity crisis
- The 2022 report by the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services identifies five direct human-induced drivers of biodiversity loss: (i) Pollution, (ii) changes in land and sea use, (iii) direct exploitation and resource extraction, (iv) climate change, and (v) invasive alien species.
- These direct drivers are influenced by broader, indirect factors like institutions (both formal and informal), economic forces, technology, governance, conflicts, and sociocultural elements such as values, beliefs, norms, and education. Let’s explore the direct drivers in more detail:
(i) Pollution – Over the past 200 years, pollution has reshaped ecosystems. Excess fertilizers from agriculture enter water bodies, harming aquatic life. Industrial waste dumping also severely affects both humans and wildlife. Industrial accidents, such as the 1984 Union Carbide disaster in Bhopal, caused long-lasting environmental damage. Even 40 years later, communities near the site still consume contaminated water.
(ii) Land and Sea Use Change – This is a major driver of both climate change and biodiversity loss. Tropical forests are being cleared for farmland or livestock pastures. Some governments even classify oil palm plantation expansion as "not deforestation" since trees are planted, though they differ greatly from natural forests. Similarly, deep-sea trawling is comparable to clear-cutting forests on land, as it destroys delicate ecosystems and releases carbon from the ocean floor. Currently, only 17% of the world's land and just 2.7% of the ocean are designated as protected areas.
- Many ecosystems are overexploited by human activities. A 2017 study found that 34% of global fisheries are overfished, with an additional 60% nearing that status. Regulating overfishing has proven challenging since fish populations are mostly invisible, and the oceans fall outside national jurisdictions.
(iii) Climate Change – It is driving many species toward extinction. Species in cold regions, like the poles and mountains, are struggling as temperatures rise, while those in warmer areas face increased risks from drought and heat stress. Insects, particularly in tropical areas, are especially vulnerable to heat.
- Additionally, climate change is exacerbating problems related to diseases and invasive species, as pests that once couldn’t survive cold winters are now thriving in milder conditions
7. Way Forward
When we talk about biodiversity, we often imagine it as something distant, deep within jungles. However, nature is all around us—cities, towns, and even a single tree canopy can host diverse life. Before we start thinking about conserving species, ask yourself if you're aware of the wildlife right outside your window. Try challenging yourself to identify 15 bird species around you in the next week. You'll be surprised—they're out there waiting to be noticed!
The current state of global biodiversity is alarming, and the international response has been much slower and less coordinated compared to efforts to tackle climate change. One reason for this may be that biodiversity loss is more difficult to define and quantify than climate change. However, awareness and action on biodiversity conservation are gaining momentum as the severity of the crisis becomes clearer to everyone
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For Prelims: Biodiversity Act, 2002, Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs), Access and Benefit Sharing, National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and Nagoya Protocol.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the key provisions and significance of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 in India's efforts towards biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of biological resources, and equitable benefit sharing. (250 words)
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Previous year Question1. How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) help in protecting Indian agriculture? (UPSC 2012)
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the indigenous and traditional genetic resources.
2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the scientific research on genetic modification of crop plants.
3. Application for Intellectual Property Rights related to genetic/biological resources cannot be made without the approval of the NBA.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
2. With reference to India, consider the following Central Acts. (UPSC 2011)
1. Import and Export (Control) Act,1947.
2. Mining and Mineral Development (Regulation) Act, 1957.
3. Customs Act, 1962.
4. Indian Forest Act, 1927.
Which of the above Acts have relevance to/bearing on biodiversity conservation in the country?
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2, 3, and4 only
C. 1, 2, 3 and 4
D. None of the above Acts
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
