SELF-HELP GROUPS (SHG)
1. Context
A women’s self-help group (SHG) model in Rajasthan’s Dholpur district has helped about 12,500 women in the western African countries of Mali and Senegal earn livelihoods, conserve environment and establish cooperative federations to take up farming, biogas production, poultry farming and goat rearing
2. Self Help Groups (SHGs)
- Self Help Groups (SHGs) are community-based organizations formed by a small group of individuals, usually from the same socio-economic background, who come together to collectively address their common needs and aspirations.
- These groups play a significant role in empowering marginalized and economically disadvantaged individuals, especially women, by providing them with a platform to enhance their social, economic, and decision-making capabilities.
3. Key Features and Objectives
- Collective Strength: SHGs encourage individuals to pool their resources, skills, and knowledge to collectively address challenges and opportunities.
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs promote savings and credit activities, allowing members to accumulate funds for emergencies, livelihood initiatives, and income generation.
- Empowerment of Women: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment, aiming to enhance their status, self-confidence, and participation in household and community decision-making.
- Social Cohesion: SHGs foster a sense of community, solidarity, and mutual support among members, contributing to social cohesion and collective development.
- Skill Development: SHGs often engage in skill-building activities, vocational training, and awareness programs to enhance members' livelihood opportunities.
4. Need for SHGs
The establishment of Self Help Groups (SHGs) addresses a range of socio-economic needs and challenges faced by marginalized and economically disadvantaged communities, particularly women, in various regions. The need for SHGs arises from several factors:
- Poverty Alleviation: SHGs contribute to poverty reduction by promoting income-generating activities and small-scale enterprises among members. These initiatives empower individuals to generate additional sources of income and improve their standard of living.
- Women's Empowerment: SHGs predominantly focus on women's empowerment by providing them with a collective platform to enhance their decision-making abilities, self-confidence, and socio-economic status. This empowerment extends to their households and communities.
- Access to Credit: SHGs provide an alternative source of credit for members who may not have access to formal banks. This access to credit supports various needs, including emergencies, education, health expenses, and livelihood development.
- Entrepreneurship Promotion: SHGs promote entrepreneurial spirit by encouraging members to initiate and manage small-scale businesses. This contributes to local economic development and job creation.
- Women's Participation: By involving women in SHGs, gender norms, and stereotypes can be challenged, leading to increased participation in decision-making processes and more equitable distribution of resources.
5. Issues with SHGs
While Self Help Groups (SHGs) have proven to be effective in addressing various socio-economic challenges, they also face certain issues and challenges that can impact their functioning and overall impact. Some of the key issues with SHGs include:
- Inequitable Participation: Despite the focus on women's empowerment, SHGs sometimes face challenges in ensuring equal and meaningful participation of all members, particularly marginalized and socially excluded women.
- Dependency on External Support: Many SHGs rely heavily on external support for training, capacity-building, and financial assistance. This can hinder their long-term sustainability and self-reliance.
- Lack of Financial Literacy: Some SHG members may have a limited understanding of financial concepts and practices, making it difficult for them to effectively manage their savings and loans.
- Limited Market Linkages: While SHGs encourage income-generating activities, members often lack access to markets to sell their products or services, which can hinder their economic growth.
- Loan Default and Repayment Issues: In some cases, members struggle with loan repayment, leading to tensions within the group and potential disruptions in trust and collaboration.
6. Role of SHG in Women's Empowerment
The role of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in women's empowerment is significant and multifaceted. SHGs provide a platform that empowers women economically, socially, and personally, enabling them to enhance their status, decision-making abilities, and overall well-being. Here's an overview of the role of SHGs in women's empowerment:
Economic Empowerment:
- Financial Inclusion: SHGs provide women access to savings and credit facilities, enabling them to accumulate funds for emergencies and invest in income-generating activities.
- Income Generation: SHGs promote entrepreneurship and livelihood opportunities among women, helping them generate additional sources of income for their families.
- Asset Ownership: Through collective savings and loan activities, women can acquire assets such as land, livestock, and equipment, contributing to their economic independence.
Social Empowerment:
- Decision-Making: Participation in SHGs helps women develop confidence, leadership skills, and a voice in household and community decisions.
- Knowledge and Awareness: SHGs offer a platform for sharing information, learning about health, education, legal rights, and government programs, empowering women to make informed choices.
Personal Empowerment:
- Self-Confidence: Engaging in group activities and interacting with peers fosters self-confidence and self-esteem among women.
- Agency and Autonomy: Women gain a sense of agency over their lives, enabling them to assert their rights and negotiate with family members and external stakeholders.
Gender Equality:
- Changing Norms: SHGs challenge traditional gender norms and stereotypes by promoting women's participation in economic activities, decision-making, and leadership roles.
- Balanced Power Dynamics: Women's increased involvement in income generation and decision-making contributes to more equitable power dynamics within households.
Community Transformation:
- Ripple Effect: Empowered women within SHGs serve as role models, inspiring other women in the community to join and pursue their own empowerment journey.
- Poverty Alleviation: Economic empowerment through SHGs contributes to poverty reduction and overall community development.
7. Conclusion
The expansion of the SHG movement's horizons, evolving from its initial focus on social mobilization and financial inclusion to encompass economic development, represents a natural progression along the livelihood continuum. While the shift from being mere producers to becoming entrepreneurs is indeed a positive transition, it's crucial not to overlook the inherent differences between business enterprises and savings groups or social collectives. Governments, although supportive, have yet to demonstrate their prowess in fostering entrepreneurship within rural settings.
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For Prelims: Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Poverty Alleviation, Financial Inclusion, Women Empowerment, and Gender Equality.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the role and significance of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in empowering marginalized communities, particularly women, for socio-economic development in rural areas. (250 Words)
2. Analyse the challenges faced by SHGs in their functioning and sustainability, and suggest measures to enhance their effectiveness as vehicles for grassroots empowerment and poverty alleviation. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. The Self-Help Group (SHG) programme was originally initiated by the State Bank of India by providing microcredit to the financially deprived.
2. In an SHG, all members of a group take responsibility for a loan that an individual member takes.
3. The Regional Rural Banks and Scheduled Commercial Banks support SHGs.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one
B. Only two
C. All three
D. None
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
DENGUE VIRUS
1. Context
Travel-related cases of dengue, like travel-related cases of malaria, are not uncommon in Europe. People get home from a trip to a hotspot, they come down with dengue, rest for a few days and then get back to their normal lives.
2. What is Dengue?
- The dengue virus is a member of the Flaviviridae family and is responsible for causing dengue fever, a significant global health concern.
- This virus is transmitted primarily through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes, with Aedes aegypti being the primary vector.
- Dengue infections can range from asymptomatic or mild cases to severe forms, including dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS), which can be life-threatening.
Key Characteristics of the Dengue Virus:
- Serotypes: There are four distinct serotypes of the dengue virus: DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4. Each serotype can cause the full spectrum of dengue disease, but subsequent infections with different serotypes increase the risk of severe disease.
- Genome: The dengue virus has a single-stranded RNA genome that encodes for three structural proteins (capsid, precursor membrane, and envelope) and seven non-structural proteins.
- Replication: The virus replicates in both mosquitoes and humans. In mosquitoes, it infects midgut cells and salivary glands, facilitating transmission. In humans, it replicates in various tissues, including skin, lymph nodes, and spleen.
Transmission: Aedes mosquitoes are the primary vectors responsible for transmitting the dengue virus. When an infected mosquito bites a person, the virus is introduced into the person's bloodstream. Once inside the human body, the virus replicates and spreads, leading to the onset of dengue symptoms.
3. Which virus causes dengue?
- The virus responsible for causing dengue is known as the dengue virus.
- It belongs to the Flaviviridae family and is classified into four distinct serotypes: DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4.
- These serotypes are closely related but distinct variations of the dengue virus.
- Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity to that specific serotype but only temporary immunity to the others.
- Subsequent infections with different serotypes increase the risk of severe dengue, as the immune response can sometimes enhance the virus's replication, leading to more severe symptoms.
4. Why it is spreading in India
The spread of dengue in India can be attributed to a combination of factors, including environmental, climatic, socio-economic, and public health aspects. Some of the key reasons for the spread of dengue in India are:
- Climate and Environment: Aedes mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti, which are responsible for transmitting the dengue virus, thrive in warm and humid environments. India's tropical and subtropical climate provides favorable conditions for the breeding and survival of these mosquitoes.
- Urbanization and Population Growth: Rapid urbanization and population growth have led to increased construction and improper waste management, creating more breeding sites for mosquitoes. Urban areas with crowded populations and inadequate sanitation can facilitate the transmission of dengue.
- Water Storage Practices: Aedes mosquitoes prefer to breed in clean, stagnant water. Improper water storage practices, such as uncovered containers or discarded tires, provide breeding sites for these mosquitoes. Many communities lack proper waste disposal mechanisms, contributing to mosquito breeding.
- Lack of Vector Control: Inadequate vector control measures, including limited use of insecticides, mosquito repellents, and larval control methods, contribute to the increased presence of Aedes mosquitoes in residential areas.
- Travel and Migration: The movement of people, including tourists and migrant workers, can contribute to the spread of dengue from one region to another. Infected individuals can carry the virus and introduce it to new areas where susceptible mosquito vectors are present.
5. Is there any vaccine for dengue in India?
- The first dengue vaccine approved for use in the country is called "Dengvaxia," which is manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur. Dengvaxia is a tetravalent vaccine, meaning it provides protection against all four serotypes of the dengue virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4).
- Dengvaxia is indicated for individuals aged 9 to 45 years who have a history of laboratory-confirmed previous dengue infection. This is because the vaccine's safety profile is better established in individuals who have been previously exposed to the virus. The vaccine helps to reduce the risk of severe dengue disease in those who have had a prior infection.
- It's important to note that Dengvaxia is not recommended for individuals who have not been previously infected with the dengue virus, as there is evidence suggesting that the vaccine can lead to more severe disease in individuals without prior exposure.
- The availability and usage of the dengue vaccine may vary across different regions and healthcare settings within India. As with any vaccine, its administration should be carried out under the guidance of healthcare professionals, taking into consideration individual medical histories and risk factors.
6. What do you understand by the DNA Vaccines?
- DNA vaccines, a cutting-edge innovation in the field of immunization, offer a novel way to stimulate the immune system's response against pathogens.
- Unlike traditional vaccines that use weakened or inactivated pathogens, DNA vaccines harness the power of genetic material to trigger immunity.
- They hold immense potential for combating a range of diseases, from infectious diseases to cancers, by leveraging the body's own cellular machinery.
7. Indian Council of Medical Research
- The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is the apex body in India responsible for coordinating and promoting biomedical research in the country.
- Established in 1911, it operates under the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
- The ICMR plays a crucial role in shaping the health research landscape, addressing health challenges, and advancing scientific knowledge.
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For Prelims: Dengue Virus, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), and dengue shock syndrome (DSS).
For Mains: 1. Analyze the Role of Climate Change in the Increasing Incidence of Dengue Virus Infections and its Implications for Public Health. (250 words).
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Source: The Indian Express
SMART CITY MISSION
1. Context
With 15 days to go till the Mission deadline of June 30, the Union Housing and Urban Affairs Ministry is considering extending the Smart Cities Mission to allow the cities to complete the ongoing projects, which account for around 10% of the total projects
2. What is Smart City Mission?
- The Smart Cities Mission aims at developing 100 cities, which were shortlisted, into self-sustainable urban settlements.
- The mission was launched on June 25, 2015, and was projected as one aimed at transforming the process of urban development in the country.
- Among its strategic components is ‘area-based development, which includes city improvement (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelopment), and city extension (greenfield development), plus a pan-city initiative in which ‘smart solutions’ are applied covering larger parts of the city.
3. Key Focus areas of the Smart City Mission
- Key focus areas of the scheme include the construction of walkways, pedestrian crossings, cycling tracks, efficient waste-management systems, integrated traffic management, and assessment.
- The scheme also assesses various indices to track urban development such as the Ease of Living Index, Municipal Performance Index, City GDP framework, Climate-smart Cities assessment framework, etc.
4. Integrated Command and Control Centre (ICCC)
- The Smart Cities Mission includes setting up ICCCs for each such city as a vital step.
- These ICCCs are designed to enable authorities to monitor the status of various amenities in real time.
- Initially aimed at controlling and monitoring water and power supply, sanitation, traffic movement, integrated building management, city connectivity and Internet infrastructure, these centres have since evolved to monitor various other parameters.
- The ICCCs are now also linked to the CCTNS (Crime and Criminal Tracking Networks and Systems) network under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- The ICCC acts of a smart city acts as a “nerve centre” for operations management.
- It processes a complex and large pool of data sets at an aggregated level. For example, it is now the go-to source for integrated traffic management monitoring.
- The ICCC is the nodal point of availability of all online data and information relating to smart services included in a smart city, such as LED street lighting, CCTV surveillance cameras, air quality sensors, smart parking system, WiFi, electricity and water supply and billing, GIS, e-hospitals, property tax management, estate management, engineering systems, asset management systems, and other services.
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During the pandemic, they also served as war rooms for Covid-19 management.
5. How did the ICCCs help in the management of Covid-19?
- During the pandemic, they also served as war rooms for Covid-19 management.
- During the peak of the first wave, when countries were struggling to figure out ways of combating the virus, the government used the ICCCs as war rooms for managing the outbreak, with real-time surveillance and monitoring of districts across the country.
- Converted into war rooms, the smart cities ICCCs used the central data dashboard and provided information about the status of Covid-positive cases in various administrative zones of these cities, officials aware of the exercise said.
- The war rooms were also used for tracking people under quarantine and suspected Covid 19 cases.
6. Current Status of Smart Cities Mission
- The ambitious project, announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2015, had an initial deadline of 2021 for the first lot of 20 smart cities out of the 100 selected.
- Although the project was announced in 2015, the cities were selected over a period of two years between 2016 and 2018, each with a deadline of completion within five years from the time of their selection.
- On the recommendation of NITI Aayog, the timeline was extended last year until 2023 due to delays caused by the pandemic.
- According to current Ministry data, the SCM has so far covered over 140 public-private partnerships, 340 smart roads, 78 vibrant public places, 118 smart water projects and over 63 solar projects.
7. What's next?
- The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has begun work to finalise its recommendation for providing ICCCs as a service to states and smaller cities.
- The Ministry aims to finalise an ICCC model and implement a pilot project across Six major states- Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
Previous year Question
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1. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding Smart India Hackathon 2017? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a centrally sponsored scheme for developing every city of our country into Smart Cities in a decade.
2. It is an initiative to identify new digital technology innovations for solving the many problems faced by our country.
3. It is a programme aimed at making all the financial transactions in our country completely digital in a decade.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2 only
C. 3 only
D. 2 and 3 only
Answer: B
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For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Smart Cities Mission, Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs), Greenfield development, Ease of Living Index, Municipal Performance Index, City GDP framework, Climate-smart Cities assessment framework, CCTNS (Crime and Criminal Tracking Networks and Systems), and NITI Aayog.
For Mains: 1. What are Smart Cities? Examine their relevance in the urban development of India.(250 Words)
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Source: The Indian Express
INDUS WATER TREATY
1. Context
New Delhi has issued a notice to Islamabad seeking modification of the more than six-decade-old Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) that governs the sharing of waters of six rivers in the Indus system between the two countries.
2. The dispute over the hydel projects
- The notice appears to be a fallout of a longstanding dispute over two hydroelectric power projects that India is constructing one on the Kishanganga river, a tributary of Jhelum and the other on the Chenab.
- Pakistan has raised objections to these projects and dispute resolution mechanisms under the Treaty have been invoked multiple times. But a full resolution has not been reached.
- In 2015, Pakistan asked that a Neutral Expert should be appointed to examine its technical objections to the Kishanganga and Ratle HEPs.
- But the following year, Pakistan unilaterally retracted this request and proposed that a Court of Arbitration should adjudicate its objections.
- In August 2016, Pakistan approached the World Bank, which brokered the 1960 Treaty, seeking the constitution of a Court of Arbitration under the relevant dispute redressal provisions of the Treaty.
| Instead of responding to Pakistan's request for a Court of Arbitration, India moved a separate application asking for the appointment of a Neutral Expert, which is a lower level of dispute resolution provided in the Treaty. |
- India argued that Pakistan's request for a Court of Arbitration violated the graded mechanism of dispute resolution in the Treaty.
- In between, a significant event happened that had consequences for the Treaty.
- A Pakistan-backed terror attack on Uri in September 2016 prompted calls within India to walk out of the Indus Waters Treaty, which allows a significantly bigger share of the six river glasses of water to Pakistan.
- The Prime Minister had famously said that blood and water could not flow together and India has suspended routine bi-annual talks between the Indus Commissioners of the two countries.
3. Applications moved by Pakistan and India
- The World Bank, the third party to the Treaty and the acknowledged arbiter of disputes were, meanwhile faced with a unique situation of having received two separate requests for the same dispute.
- New Delhi feels that the World Bank is just a facilitator and has a limited role.
- On December 12, 2016, the World Bank announced a "pause" in the separate processes initiated by India and Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty to allow the two countries to consider alternative ways to resolve their disagreements.
- The regular meetings of Indus Waters Commissioners resumed in 2017 and India tried to use these to find mutually agreeable solutions between 2017 and 2022.
- Pakistan refused to discuss these issues at these meetings.
- At Pakistan's continued insistence, the World Bank, in March last year, initiated actions on the requests of both India and Pakistan.
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On March 31, 2022, the World Bank decided to resume the process of appointing a Neutral Expert and a Chairman for the Court of Arbitration.
In October last year, the Bank named Michel Lino as the Neutral Expert and Prof. Sean Murphy as Chairman of the Court of Arbitration.
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- They will carry out their duties in their capacity as subject matter experts and independently of any other appointments they may currently hold.
- On October 19, 2022, the Ministry of External Affairs said, " We have noted the World Bank's announcement to concurrently appoint a Neutral Expert and a Chair of the Court of Arbitration in the ongoing matter related to the Kishanganga and Ratle projects".
- Recognising the World Bank's admission in its announcement that "carrying out two processes concurrently poses practical and legal challenges".
- India would assess the matter that "India believes that the implementation of the Indus Water Treaty must be in the letter and spirit of the Treaty".
- Such parallel consideration of the same issues is not provided for in any provisions of the Treaty and India has been repeatedly citing the possibility of the two processes delivering contradictory rulings, which could lead to an unprecedented and legally untenable situation, which is unforeseen in Treaty provisions.
4. Dispute redressal mechanism
- The dispute redressal mechanism provided under Article IX of the IWT is graded.
- It's a 3-level mechanism.
- So, whenever India plans to start a project, under the Indus Water Treaty, it has to inform Pakistan that it is planning to build a project.
- Pakistan might oppose it and ask for more details. That would mean there is a question and in case there is a question, that question has to be clarified between the two sides at the level of the Indus Commissioners.
- If that difference is not resolved by them, then the level is raised. The question then becomes a difference.
- That difference is to be resolved by another set mechanism, which is the Natural Expert.
- It is at this stage that the World Bank comes into the picture.
- In case the Neutral Expert says that they are not able to resolve the difference or that the issue needs an interpretation of the Treaty, then that difference becomes a dispute.
It then goes to the third stage the Court of Arbitration. - To Sum up, it's a very graded and sequential mechanism first Commissioner, then the Neutral Expert and only then the Court of Arbitration.
5. India's notice and its implications
- While the immediate provocation for the modification is to address the issue of two parallel mechanisms, at this point, the implications of India's notice for modifying the treaty are not very clear.
- Article XII (3) of the Treaty that India has invoked is not a dispute redressal mechanism.
- It is in effect, a provision to amend the Treaty.
- However, an amendment or modification can happen only through a "duly ratified Treaty concluded for that purpose between the two governments".
- Pakistan is under no obligation to agree to India's proposal.
- As of now, it is not clear what happens if Pakistan does not respond to India's notice within 90 days.
| The next provision in the Treaty, Article XII (4), provides for the termination of the Treaty through a similar process " a duly ratified Treaty concluded for that the purpose between the two governments". |
- India has not spelt out exactly what it wants to be modified in the Treaty.
- But over the last few years, especially since the Uri attack, there has been a growing demand in India to use the Indus Waters Treaty as a strategic tool, considering that India has the natural advantage of being the upper riparian state.
- India has not fully utilized its rights over the waters of the three east-flowing rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej over which India has full control under the Treaty.
It has also not adequately utilized the limited rights over the three west-flowing rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum which are meant for Pakistan. - Following the Uri attack, India established a high-level task force to exploit the full potential of the Indus Waters Treaty.
- Accordingly, India has been working to start several big and small hydroelectric projects that had either been stalled or were in the planning stages.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Indus water treaty, World Bank, India and Pakistan, Ravi, Jhelum, Sutlej, Beas, Chennab, Court of Arbitration, Uri attack, Neutral Expert, hydel projects,
For Mains:
1. What is Indus Water Treaty and discuss India's recent notice and its implications (250 Words)
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Source: The Indian Express
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
1. Context
The Union Council of Ministers (COM) headed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi was sworn in on June 9, 2024. The present COM consists of the Prime Minister, 30 Cabinet Ministers, 5 Ministers of State (MoS) with independent charge and 36 MoS.
2. About the Council of Ministers
- The Council of Ministers typically consists of the Prime Minister and other ministers. These ministers are usually categorized into different ranks such as Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers. The composition can vary depending on the country's specific governmental structure
- The Council of Ministers is a key executive body in parliamentary systems of government, responsible for administering the government and implementing its policies
- India operates as a parliamentary democracy where the President serves as the ceremonial head of state. According to Article 74 of the Constitution, a Council of Ministers (COM) led by the Prime Minister is designated to assist and advise the President.
- The actual executive authority resides with the COM. Ministers must be members of either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha, or must secure membership within six months of their appointment. A comparable structure exists at the state level, with a COM led by the Chief Minister.
- The COM includes Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State (MoS) with independent charge, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers. The Constitution does not formally differentiate among these ranks; this classification follows British traditions.
- Cabinet Ministers hold senior positions and manage major portfolios, while Ministers of State support the Cabinet Ministers and operate under their direction. Ministers of State with independent charge report directly to the Prime Minister regarding their ministries
3. What is the constitutional limit?
- At the time of India's independence, the initial Council of Ministers (COM) consisted of only 15 members led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Following the first general elections in 1952, Nehru expanded his COM to include about 30 ministers.
- Over time, the number of ministers grew to approximately 50-60. Notably, the United Front governments under Deve Gowda in June 1996 and I.K. Gujral in April 1997 had just 21 and 34 ministers respectively.
- In 1999, when Atal Bihari Vajpayee assumed the role of Prime Minister, his COM included 74 ministers. In some larger states, the COM size became quite large; for instance, in 2002, Chief Minister Mayawati of Uttar Pradesh had 79 ministers.
- In February 2000, the National Commission to review the working of the Constitution, chaired by Justice Venkatachaliah, recommended a cap of 10% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly for the number of ministers at the central or state level.
- This recommendation led to the 91st Constitutional Amendment in 2003, which limited the number of ministers, including the Prime Minister or Chief Minister, to 15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly.
- There is no minimum requirement for the central government, but smaller states must have at least 12 ministers. For the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu & Kashmir, the maximum number of ministers is limited to 10% of the total strength of their assemblies
4. Challenges and Issues
- A contentious issue, even after the imposition of limits on the number of ministers, is the appointment of Parliamentary Secretaries in various states.
- The position of Parliamentary Secretary (PS) originates from the British system and was first established in India in 1951.
- They have not been a consistent feature in central governments, with the last PS appointed at the central level in 1990.
- However, several states have continued appointing PS to circumvent the restrictions on the Council of Ministers imposed by the 91st Amendment.
- High Courts in Punjab & Haryana, Rajasthan, Bombay, Calcutta, Telangana, Karnataka, and others have nullified or questioned these appointments, seeing them as indirect violations of the cap on the COM. In July 2017, the Supreme Court also declared a law passed by Assam in 2004 for the appointment of PS as unconstitutional.
- Recently, in January 2024, the Himachal Pradesh High Court restrained six PS in the state from functioning as ministers or enjoying ministerial facilities. Appointing MLAs as PS to evade constitutional limits on ministerial appointments should be strictly prohibited and discontinued.
- Additionally, it is noteworthy that states like Sikkim, Goa, and smaller northeastern states, with populations ranging from seven to forty lakhs, have a minimum of twelve ministers.
- In contrast, Union Territories like Delhi and Jammu & Kashmir, with populations exceeding 2 crore and 1.5 crore respectively, are limited to a maximum of seven and nine ministers.
- The administration of public order, police, and land in Delhi is not under the Delhi government, and similarly, public order and police in Jammu and Kashmir are not under its government.
- Given the populations of these Union Territories, the 10% limit on their Council of Ministers may warrant reconsideration
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In Other Countries
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5. Way Forward
In a parliamentary system, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the parliament. This means that the entire council must resign if it loses the confidence of the parliamentary majority
The Council of Ministers is a pivotal component of the executive branch in parliamentary democracies, tasked with policy formulation, administration, and maintaining legislative support
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For Prelims: Council of Ministers, Prime Minister, Cabinet
For Mains: GS II: Parliamentary Procedures, Council of Ministers
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Previous Year Questions
1.The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2012)
A.Prime Minister
B.President
C.Rajya Sabha
D.Lok Sabha
Answer (D)
In a parliamentary system of government, such as that of India, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the lower house of the parliament, which is the Lok Sabha. Here are some key points explaining this concept:
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Source: The Hindu
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)
1. Context
The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahangara Palike (BBMP) has proposed a Solid Waste Management (SWM) Cess of ₹100 per month for each household. While the proposal has sparked debate and criticism among residents and stakeholders, it is important to understand the rationale behind SWM cess, its intended use, and the broader context of solid waste management challenges faced by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
2. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are institutions of local self-governance that manage the affairs of urban areas, such as cities and towns. They play a crucial role in the administration and development of urban areas. ULBs are established to ensure efficient delivery of civic amenities and services to urban residents. Here are the key aspects of Urban Local Bodies:
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Types of Urban Local Bodies:
- Municipal Corporations: These are established in larger urban areas with significant populations and are responsible for providing a wide range of services. They have a Mayor, a municipal commissioner, and elected representatives. Examples include the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai and the Delhi Municipal Corporation.
- Municipal Councils: These are set up in medium-sized urban areas. They provide a narrower range of services compared to municipal corporations and are headed by a Chairperson. Examples include the Mysore City Municipal Council.
- Nagar Panchayats: These are found in smaller urban areas or transitional areas that are in the process of becoming urbanized. They are smaller than municipal councils and serve as a basic unit of local governance.
| Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) levy user fees or SWM cess as per the provisions of Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. According to these guidelines, ULBs must collect user fees/cess for SWM services provisions provided. ULBs typically charge about ₹30-50 per month as SWM cess, which is collected along with property tax. ULBs are now considering revising these rates and imposing higher charges on bulk waste generators to meet a portion of the costs incurred in providing SWM services |
3. What are the Charges?
- Providing Solid Waste Management (SWM) services is a complex and resource-intensive task. Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) typically allocate around 80% of their workforce and up to 50% of their annual budgets to deliver SWM services to city residents.
- In a city like Bangalore, each urban resident generates approximately 0.6 kg of waste per day, amounting to 0.2 tonnes per person annually. Overall, Bangalore produces about 5,000 tonnes of solid waste daily. Managing this volume requires around 5,000 door-to-door waste collection vehicles, 600 compactors, and roughly 20,000 sanitation workers (Paurakarmikas).
- SWM services consist of four main components: collection, transportation, processing, and disposal. ULBs often combine collection and transportation into one package, and processing and disposal into another. Collection and transportation are particularly resource and labor-intensive, consuming about 85-90% of the SWM budget, while only 10-15% is allocated to processing and disposal of waste
4. Solid Waste Mechanism in India
Solid Waste Management (SWM) in India involves a systematic approach to managing the collection, transportation, processing, and disposal of waste generated in urban areas. Here is an overview of the SWM mechanism in India:
Regulatory Framework
India's SWM practices are governed by several key regulations:
- Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules provide comprehensive guidelines for urban local bodies (ULBs) on managing solid waste, emphasizing segregation at source, decentralized processing, and safe disposal.
- Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: These rules regulate the use, manufacture, and recycling of plastic products.
- Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016: These rules address the management and handling of hazardous waste.
Components of SWM
Collection
- Door-to-Door Collection: ULBs often implement door-to-door waste collection systems to ensure all household waste is collected efficiently.
- Segregation at Source: Residents are encouraged to segregate waste into biodegradable (wet) and non-biodegradable (dry) categories.
- Community Bins and Collection Points: Strategically placed bins and collection points are used in areas where door-to-door collection is not feasible.
Transportation
- Primary Collection Vehicles: These include handcarts, auto tippers, and tricycles used for door-to-door collection.
- Secondary Collection Vehicles: Larger vehicles like compactors and trucks transport waste from collection points to processing facilities.
Processing
- Composting: Biodegradable waste is processed into compost, which can be used as organic fertilizer.
- Vermiculture: Organic waste is converted into vermicompost using earthworms.
- Recycling: Dry waste such as plastics, paper, and metals are sorted and sent to recycling units.
Disposal
- Sanitary Landfills: Engineered landfills are designed to safely dispose of residual waste while minimizing environmental impact.
- Waste-to-Energy Plants: These facilities convert non-recyclable waste into energy through incineration or other processes.
5. Government Initiatives
- Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission): Launched in 2014, this mission aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage and promote cleanliness, including effective SWM.
- Smart Cities Mission: Focuses on sustainable and inclusive development, including modernizing urban infrastructure for better SWM.
- Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Aims to provide basic services (e.g., water supply, sewerage) to households and build amenities in cities, promoting sustainable urban development, including SWM
6. What are the challenges?
- Solid waste in Indian cities comprises approximately 55-60% wet biodegradable material and 40-45% non-biodegradable material.
- Only about 1-2% of the dry waste is recyclable, with the majority being non-recyclable and non-biodegradable.
- While 55% of the wet waste has the potential to be converted into organic compost or biogas, the actual yield is as low as 10-12%, making these processes financially unfeasible.
- Typically, the operational revenue from waste processing facilities covers only 35-40% of operational expenses, with the remainder subsidized by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
- In addition to financial constraints, ULBs encounter several challenges in Solid Waste Management (SWM) services.
- These include managing open dumping sites and drains, preventing littering, dealing with seasonal variations in waste generation, and conducting sweeping operations.
- Disposing of non-compostable and non-recyclable dry waste, such as single-use plastics, textile waste, and inert materials, is costly because these materials must be transported to cement factories or waste-to-energy projects located 400-500 km from cities.
- In large cities like Bangalore, about 15% of the budget is allocated to SWM—around ₹1,643 crore out of a total ₹11,163 crore budget—while the revenue from SWM services is minimal, at approximately ₹20 lakh per year.
- Smaller cities may spend up to 50% of their budgets on SWM but also generate negligible revenue. As a result, ULBs impose an SWM cess to cover a portion of these costs
7.Way Forward
Although collection and transportation of waste generate no revenue, several strategies can reduce overall expenditure on SWM and lower user charges. These are segregation of waste at source, reducing single-use plastic, decentralised composting initiatives, Information, Education and Awareness (IEC) to prevent open littering, and asking bulk waste generators to process their own waste.
Source: The Hindu
