2. What are Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)?

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) refer to legal rights granted to creators and owners of intellectual property, which are intangible assets resulting from human creativity and innovation. These rights provide creators and owners with exclusive control over the use and distribution of their intellectual creations, allowing them to benefit financially and protect their works from unauthorized use by others.

The main types of intellectual property rights include

• Patents protect inventions and technological innovations, granting the inventor exclusive rights to manufacture, use, and sell their invention for a limited period, typically 20 years from the date of filing the patent application.
• Copyrights protect original works of authorship, such as literary, artistic, musical, and dramatic works, as well as software, films, and other creative expressions. Copyright holders have exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, perform, and display their works for a specified period, usually the lifetime of the author plus 50 to 70 years.
• Trademarks protect distinctive signs, symbols, logos, names, or slogans used to distinguish the goods or services of one business from those of others. Trademark owners have the exclusive right to use their mark in commerce and prevent others from using similar marks that may confuse consumers.
• Trade secrets protect confidential business information, such as formulas, processes, techniques, or customer lists, which provide a competitive advantage to a business. Unlike patents, trade secrets do not require registration and can potentially last indefinitely as long as they remain secret.
• Industrial designs protect the visual appearance or aesthetic aspects of a product, such as its shape, configuration, pattern, or ornamentation. Design rights grant exclusive rights to the owner to use and prevent others from using their design for a limited period.
• Geographical indications identify goods as originating from a specific geographical location, where a particular quality, reputation, or other characteristic of the product is essentially attributable to its geographical origin. GI rights protect the unique identity and reputation of products associated with specific regions.

3. About generic medicines

Generic medicines are pharmaceutical products that contain the same active ingredients, dosage form, strength, and route of administration as brand-name drugs. However, they are typically sold under their chemical or non-proprietary name instead of a brand name. Generic medicines are bioequivalent to their brand-name counterparts, meaning they have the same therapeutic effect and safety profile when administered to patients under the same conditions.

The key characteristics of generic medicines

• Generic medicines contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as brand-name drugs. These active ingredients are responsible for the therapeutic effects of the medication.
• Generic medicines have the same dosage form (e.g., tablet, capsule, injection) and strength as the corresponding brand-name drug, ensuring consistency in dosing.
• Generic medicines are required to demonstrate bioequivalence to the brand-name drug through rigorous testing. This means that the rate and extent of absorption of the active ingredient into the bloodstream are similar to that of the brand-name drug when administered at the same dose.
• Generic medicines must meet the same quality, safety, and efficacy standards as brand-name drugs. Regulatory authorities, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States or the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in Europe, review and approve generic medicines before they can be marketed.
• One of the primary advantages of generic medicines is their lower cost compared to brand-name drugs. Generic manufacturers do not incur the same research and development expenses as brand-name companies, allowing them to offer their products at a lower price.
• In many countries, including the United States, generic medicines are considered interchangeable with their brand-name counterparts. This means that pharmacists can substitute a generic version for the brand-name drug if it is available, as long as it meets certain regulatory requirements.

4. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement?

The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement is an international treaty administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets out minimum standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) among WTO member countries. The TRIPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations and came into effect on January 1, 1995.

Key features of the TRIPS Agreement include

• The TRIPS Agreement covers various forms of intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs, and trade secrets.
• The agreement establishes minimum standards of protection and enforcement for each type of intellectual property. These standards require member countries to provide adequate and effective protection for intellectual property rights, ensuring that they are enforceable through civil and criminal procedures.
• The TRIPS Agreement requires WTO member countries to treat foreign intellectual property rights holders no less favourably than domestic rights holders. This principle, known as national treatment, prevents discrimination against foreign intellectual property rights holders in terms of protection and enforcement.
• Member countries are also required to grant the most favoured nation treatment to intellectual property rights holders from other WTO member countries. This means that any advantages, privileges, or exemptions granted to the intellectual property rights holders of one WTO member country must be extended to the rights holders of all other WTO member countries.
• The TRIPS Agreement allows member countries to adopt certain flexibilities and exceptions to intellectual property rules to promote public health, access to medicines, and other public policy objectives. These flexibilities include compulsory licensing, parallel importation, and limitations and exceptions to copyright and patent rights.
• The TRIPS Agreement provides for a dispute settlement mechanism to address disputes between WTO member countries regarding the interpretation and application of the agreement's provisions. This mechanism allows countries to bring complaints against each other and seek resolution through WTO adjudication procedures.

5. The patent criteria in India

In India, the criteria for granting a patent are outlined in the Patents Act, 1970, and its subsequent amendments. To qualify for a patent, an invention must meet the following criteria.

• The invention must be new and not disclosed to the public anywhere in the world before the date of filing the patent application. Any prior publication, use, or disclosure of the invention would jeopardize its novelty.
• The invention must involve an inventive step or non-obvious advancement over existing knowledge or technology for a person skilled in the relevant field. In other words, it must not be obvious to someone with ordinary skills in the field.
• The invention must be capable of being made or used in an industry. It should have practical utility or industrial application and be capable of being manufactured or used in some kind of business or industrial activity.
• Certain subject matters are excluded from patentability under Indian patent law. These include inventions that are frivolous, contrary to public order or morality, mere discoveries of a scientific principle or method, schemes, rules, or methods of performing mental acts or doing business, computer programs per se, and methods of agriculture or horticulture.
• The patent application must disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete for it to be carried out by a person skilled in the relevant field. The application must include a description of the invention, claims defining the scope of protection sought, and any necessary drawings or diagrams.
• The invention must not have been disclosed to the public in any manner, including through publication, before the filing date of the patent application. Public disclosure before filing can undermine the novelty and patentability of the invention.

Applicants seeking a patent in India must ensure that their invention satisfies these criteria and file a patent application with the Indian Patent Office. The patent application will undergo examination to determine whether the invention meets the statutory requirements for patentability. If the application meets all criteria, a patent will be granted, providing the inventor with exclusive rights to the invention for a specified period, typically 20 years from the date of applying.

6. The theme of the World Intellectual Property Day, 2024

• World Intellectual Property Day was established by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in 2000 to promote awareness about intellectual property rights and their importance in fostering innovation, creativity, and economic development.
• The date of April 26th was chosen for World Intellectual Property Day because it marks the anniversary of the entry into force of the Convention establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization in 1970.
•  2024 Theme: "IP and the SDGs: Building our common future with innovation and creativity." This year's theme focuses on how IP rights can be used to advance the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to address global challenges like poverty, inequality, and climate change.

7. The Way Forward

Addressing concerns related to intellectual property rights and access to medicines requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach involving multiple stakeholders and policy domains. By engaging in dialogue, advocacy, and policy reform efforts, stakeholders can work towards ensuring that intellectual property rights support innovation while also promoting access to essential medicines for all.

EL NINO AND MONSOON 

1. Context  

The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) record Rs 2,10,874 crore “surplus” transfer to the Centre has brought down the benchmark 10-year government bond yields to below 7 per cent, for the first time in almost a year. The move has, thus, lowered interest rates even without any cut in the central bank’s policy lending (repo) rate. The latter action is, of course, predicated upon the trajectory of inflation. 

2. Key points

• The monsoon rains have helped to improve crop yields, which has led to higher production and incomes for farmers. 
• This has also helped to reduce food prices and improve food security in India.
• The monsoon rains are a welcome respite for India, which has been hit by several droughts in recent years.
• The good rains have helped to improve the lives of millions of farmers and their families and have boosted the Indian economy.

3. La Nina Brings Bountiful Rainfall to India

• La Nina is a climate pattern that occurs every few years when the central and eastern Pacific Ocean cools.
• This cooling leads to changes in the atmosphere, including stronger trade winds and increased evaporation.
• These changes can lead to increased rainfall in India, which is why the country has experienced four consecutive years of good monsoons since 2019.
• La Nina is caused by a natural cycle of ocean and atmospheric changes. The cycle is called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
• During La Nina, the trade winds blow stronger than usual, which pushes warm water away from the western Pacific Ocean and towards the east. This leaves the eastern Pacific Ocean cooler than usual.
• The cooler water in the eastern Pacific Ocean leads to increased evaporation, which creates more clouds and rain.
• The monsoon rains have helped to improve crop yields and boost agricultural production in India.
• This has led to higher incomes for farmers and reduced food prices for consumers.
• The good rains have also helped to improve food security in India by reducing the risk of drought and famine.
• The La Nina event that occurred from July-September 2020 to December-February 2022-23 was one of the longest ever.
• It brought copious rains to India, just as two previous “strong” La Ninas in 2007-08 and 2010-11, followed by one “moderate” episode in 2011-12, had done.
• The most recent Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) value, which is a three-month running average of sea surface temperature (SST) deviation from the normal in the east-central equatorial Pacific, was minus 0.4 degrees Celsius for January-March 2023.
• Since La Nina is characterized by a negative ONI exceeding or equal to minus 0.5 degrees, it means that the so-called ENSO (El Nino-Southern Oscillation) cycle has entered a “neutral” phase.
• It is important to note that La Nina is a natural climate pattern and its effects can vary from year to year.
• However, the good monsoon rains that India has experienced since 2019 are a clear sign of the benefits that La Nina can bring to the country.

4. El Nino effect on India's Monsoon

• While La Nina brings good rainfall to India, the opposite "warm" phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle poses a threat.
• During El Nino, the trade winds weaken or reverse, causing warm water masses to shift towards the central and eastern equatorial Pacific.
• This results in increased rainfall in western Latin America, the Caribbean, and the US Gulf Coast, while Southeast Asia, Australia, and India experience reduced convective currents.

6.  Forecasts and Implications

• The Australian Bureau of Meteorology forecasts a 50% chance of El Nino development later in 2023, which is double the normal likelihood.
• Warmer sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have already emerged in parts of the eastern tropical Pacific.
• The India Meteorological Department is scheduled to release its first long-range forecast for the 2023 southwest monsoon.

7. Historical Impact of El Nino on Indian Agriculture

• Drought years and monsoon failures in India have been closely associated with El Nino events of varying intensity since Independence.
• The only exception was 1966-67, while the preceding year experienced a "strong" El Nino. However, not all El Nino years have resulted in agricultural decline.
• Examples include 1982-83 and 1997-98, which saw only marginal decreases in foodgrain output.
• Positive agricultural GDP growth was observed in 1951-52, 1963-64, 1968-69, and 1994-95, coinciding with "moderate" El Nino events.

8. Outlook for 2023

• There is a high statistical probability that 2023 could break the streak of good rainfall years since 2019.
• The likelihood of this outcome remains high, regardless of the presence or strength of El Nino. However, even if El Nino occurs, it may manifest as a "weak" event.

9. Implications and Challenges

• In light of the potential decrease in monsoon rainfall, policymakers and industries, including tractor companies that have experienced record-high sales in recent years, must prepare for a subpar monsoon season.
• The associated political challenges are also significant, given the upcoming national Lok Sabha polls in April-May 2024, heightening the importance of managing the situation effectively.

 

For Prelims: El Nino, La Lina, GDP, Rainfall, sea surface temperatures, El Nino Southern Oscillation, Monsoon, US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oceanic Nino Index,  For Mains:  1. What is El Nino? Explain El Nino Threat to India's Monsoon and discuss its impact on Indian Agriculture. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions    1. A new type of El Nino called El Nino Modoki appeared in the news. In this context, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)  1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central Pacific ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in the Eastern Pacific ocean. 2. Normal El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Atlantic ocean but El Nino Modoki results in a greater number of hurricanes with greater frequency. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only       B. 2 only        C. Both 1 and 2             D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B     2. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino? (UPSC 2011)  1. La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Nino is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. 2. El Nino has an adverse effect on the south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on the monsoon climate. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only        B. 2 only         C. Both 1 and 2           D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   3. Consider the following statements:  (MPSC 2017) a. La Nina is a little girl. b. During the time of La Nina cold water in the ocean rises to the surface. c. La Nina strengthens the Indian monsoon. d. During the time of El Nino, trade winds weaken, and warm water moves east in the ocean. Which of the above statements is/are correct?  A. Only a and b          B. a, b and c         C. Only b and c           D. All of the above   Answer: D   4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country is (SSC CGL 2022) A. Total value of tradable goods produced in a year. B. Total value of monetary and non-monetary goods and services within a year. C. Total value of economic transactions done within a country within a year. D. None of the above   Answer: D   5. With reference to India economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015) 1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only          B.  2 only         C.  Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   6. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2020) 1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March. 2. OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean. Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 only        B. 2 only              C. Both 1 and 2            D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   7. With reference to 'Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)' sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017) 1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. 2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an EI Nino's impact on the monsoon. Select the correct answer using the code given below:   A. 1 only    B. 2 only          C. Both 1 and 2           D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   8. "EL Nino" refers to a temperature anomaly in the ________ ocean. (NTPC 2017) A. Indian            B. Pacific        C. Southern             D. Atlantic   Answer: B   9. The acidification of oceans is increasing. Why is this phenomenon a cause of concern? (UPSC 2012) 1. The growth and survival of calcareous phytoplankton will be adversely affected. 2. The growth and survival of coral reefs will be adversely affected. 3. The survival of some animals that have phytoplanktonic larvae will be adversely affected. 4. The cloud seeding and formation of clouds will be adversely affected. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1, 2 and 3 only           B. 2 only         C.  1 and 3 only            D. 1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: A

 

Source: The Indian Express

INFLATION

 

 

1. Context

 

 

RBI has been working very closely with the government, especially the Ministry of Finance, to ensure that India achieves high GDP growth (above 7 per cent) while containing inflation within prescribed limits…The government had gone on an overdrive with export controls of wheat, rice, sugar, and even onions. Although such restrictive export policies help the consumers, they hurt farmers’ interest adversely

 

 

2. What is Inflation?

• It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
• In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
• Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.

 

3. How is Food Inflation measured in India?

Food inflation in India is measured using various indices and indicators. The primary indices used to measure food inflation in India include the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Both indices provide insights into the overall price movements of goods and services, including food items, but they differ in terms of their coverage and methodology.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

• The CPI is a key indicator used by the Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to monitor inflation, including food inflation.
• The CPI measures the average change over time in the prices paid by urban and rural consumers for a basket of goods and services, including food items, housing, clothing, transportation, and more.
• Within the CPI, food and beverages form a significant component, and food inflation is specifically derived from the changes in food prices within the CPI basket.
• The CPI is released monthly by the Central Statistics Office (CSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Wholesale Price Index (WPI)

• The WPI is another important index that tracks price changes at the wholesale level for a selected group of commodities, including food products, manufactured goods, fuel, and more.
• The WPI measures price changes from the perspective of producers and wholesalers, providing insights into inflationary pressures in the production and distribution stages.
• Food articles, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, and edible oils, are included in the WPI basket for monitoring food inflation.
• The WPI is released weekly by the Office of Economic Adviser under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

In addition to these indices, other indicators such as the Food Sub-Index within the CPI and specific price indices for essential food items (like vegetables, pulses, and cereals) are also used to gauge food inflation more accurately. The RBI closely monitors food inflation trends as part of its monetary policy framework to make informed decisions regarding interest rates and economic stability. Overall, the combination of CPI, WPI, and specific food-related indices provides a comprehensive assessment of food inflation in India.

 

4. Headline and Core Inflation

Inflation is a key economic indicator that measures the rate at which prices of goods and services rise over time. In India, two important measures of inflation are headline inflation and core inflation.

• Headline Inflation: Headline inflation refers to the overall rate of inflation in an economy, taking into account the price changes across all goods and services included in the consumer basket. It reflects the broad-based movement in prices, including food, fuel, housing, transportation, and other essential and non-essential items. Headline inflation is typically measured using indices such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Fluctuations in headline inflation can be influenced by various factors, including changes in global commodity prices, government policies, supply chain disruptions, and demand-side pressures.
• Core Inflation: Core inflation, on the other hand, excludes volatile items such as food and energy from the basket of goods used to calculate inflation. By excluding these volatile components, core inflation provides a more stable measure of underlying inflationary trends in the economy. Core inflation is often considered a better gauge of long-term inflationary pressures and helps policymakers in making informed decisions regarding monetary policy. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), for example, closely monitors core inflation to assess the underlying inflationary trends and formulate appropriate monetary policy responses.

Understanding the distinction between headline and core inflation is essential for policymakers, businesses, and consumers alike. While headline inflation provides a comprehensive view of overall price movements, core inflation offers insights into the underlying inflationary pressures, helping to distinguish between temporary fluctuations and sustained inflation trends. By closely monitoring both measures of inflation, policymakers can effectively manage inflationary risks and maintain price stability, contributing to sustainable economic growth and stability.

 

5. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is a crucial institutional framework established by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to formulate and implement monetary policy decisions in India. 

Role

• Formulating Monetary Policy: The primary role of the MPC is to formulate and implement monetary policy in India. This includes setting the key policy interest rates, such as the repo rate, reverse repo rate, and marginal standing facility (MSF) rate, to achieve the objectives of price stability and economic growth.
• Targeting Inflation: The MPC's main objective is to maintain price stability, which is primarily achieved by targeting a specific inflation rate. In India, the RBI has adopted a flexible inflation targeting framework, where the MPC aims to keep the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation within a specified target range over the medium term. Currently, the inflation target is set at 4% with a tolerance band of +/- 2%.
• Evaluating Economic Conditions: The MPC assesses various economic indicators, such as GDP growth, inflation expectations, fiscal policy measures, global economic developments, and financial market conditions, to make informed decisions about monetary policy.
• Communication: The MPC communicates its monetary policy decisions, rationale, and outlook for the economy through periodic press releases, statements, and the publication of meeting minutes. This transparency enhances predictability and credibility in monetary policy.

Composition

• Members: The MPC consists of six members, including three members nominated by the Government of India and three members from the Reserve Bank of India. The Governor of the RBI serves as the ex-officio Chairperson of the MPC.
• Appointment: The members of the MPC are appointed by the Central Government based on their expertise and experience in economics, banking, finance, or related fields. The RBI Governor and Deputy Governor (in charge of monetary policy) are automatic members of the MPC.
• Voting Rights: Each member of the MPC, including the RBI Governor, has one vote in the decision-making process. Decisions are made by a majority vote, with the Governor having the casting vote in case of a tie.
• Terms: Members of the MPC serve fixed terms, typically for four years, with eligibility for reappointment. This ensures continuity and stability in monetary policy formulation.

 

6. The Way Forward

By implementing the measures and fostering collaborative efforts among policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders, India can effectively manage inflationary pressures, maintain price stability, and promote sustainable economic growth and development.

 

For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:   1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words) 2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements:  (UPSC 2021) 1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government. 2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest. 3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act. Which of the above statements is/are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only    B.  2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3     2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015) Bank rate Open Market Operations Public debt Public revenue Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only   (b) 2, 3 and 4    (c) 1 and 2     (d) 1, 3 and 4   3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall. (b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks. (c) Central bank is following an easy money policy. (d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.   4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017)  1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only      B.  1 and 2 only      C. 3 only      D. 2 and 3 only   5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only. Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis. With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021) 1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices. 2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid? A. 1 only        B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2     6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011) 1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30. 2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change. 3. The food supply chain has structural constraints. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3     7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)  A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation     8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 3 only     B.  2 only        C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3   Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B

Source: The Indian Express

MENSTRUAL HYGIENE IN INDIAN PRISONS

 

1. Context

 

In recent years, India has witnessed significant progress in menstrual hygiene management, as highlighted by the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS 2019-2020). The survey indicates that approximately eight out of 10 young women aged 15-24 years now use safe menstrual hygiene products. However, despite improvements in urban areas and certain demographics, the menstrual hygiene needs of one of the most marginalized populations of women in Indian prisons are often overlooked. In a society where prisoners are often deprived of fundamental rights, female prisoners face even greater challenges. Society's unrealistic expectations of female purity contribute to systemic neglect and oversight of their basic needs, including menstrual hygiene.

 

2. Status of Menstrual Hygiene in Prisons

 

According to the National Crime Records Bureau, there are 23,772 women in Indian prisons, with 77% belonging to the reproductive age group (18-50 years) and likely to menstruate regularly. However, the availability of sanitary napkins in prisons has been inconsistent nationwide, with varying quality.

Lack of Adequate Facilities

Despite recommendations in the 2016 Model Prison Manual, many states have not implemented provisions for supplying adequate water and washroom facilities for female prisoners. Overcrowding and poor socio-economic conditions worsen the struggle of incarcerated women to access basic necessities like water, sanitary napkins, detergent, and soap during menstruation.

Study Findings in Maharashtra

A study conducted in a prison in Maharashtra in June 2023 revealed significant deficiencies in water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities for women. The inadequate water supply posed challenges for maintaining personal hygiene during menstruation. Women resorted to storing water, further straining limited toilet facilities.

Challenges Faced

Around 50 women had to share only two toilets for all their daily activities, including excreting, changing napkins, and washing clothes and utensils. Filthy washrooms discouraged frequent urination, leading to a higher incidence of urinary infections among female prisoners.

Dependency on Donated Sanitary Napkins

Prison authorities rely on sanitary napkins donated by non-governmental organizations, leaving decisions about the type, quality, and quantity of menstrual absorbents to these organizations. Often, substandard products are supplied, affecting the menstrual health and hygiene of incarcerated women.

 

3. Policy Interventions for Menstrual Hygiene

 

India has implemented various policy interventions to improve access to menstrual hygiene products, particularly among young women. One such initiative is the Menstrual Hygiene Scheme, which includes the distribution of free or subsidized sanitary napkins.

National Menstrual Hygiene Policy

In 2023, India formulated the 'National Menstrual Hygiene Policy' to recognize menstruation as a natural process deserving meaningful attention. The policy emphasizes equity in the safe and dignified management of menstrual hygiene. It prioritizes ensuring equal opportunities for all menstruating individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status or geographical location, to access and manage their menstruation safely and hygienically.

Inclusion of Prisoners

Remarkably, the policy identifies prisoners as a target population with compromised access to menstrual hygiene facilities, marking a positive step forward. However, it falls short of providing a concrete action plan to enhance menstrual hygiene management in prisons. Additionally, it overlooks the Ministry of Home Affairs as a critical stakeholder influencing menstrual hygiene management in prisons.

Need for a Concrete Action Plan

While recognizing prisoners' menstrual hygiene needs is commendable, there is a pressing need for the policy to outline specific measures to address these needs effectively. Concrete action plans should be developed to improve access to sanitary napkins, water, and sanitation facilities in prisons.

Involvement of Stakeholders

Incorporating the Ministry of Home Affairs as a key stakeholder is essential for implementing effective menstrual hygiene management in prisons. Collaborative efforts involving multiple stakeholders, including government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and prison authorities, are necessary to ensure the successful implementation of policies aimed at improving menstrual hygiene in prison settings.

 

4. Action Plan for Improving Menstrual Hygiene in Prisons

 

Ensuring basic standards of menstrual hygiene for women in captivity is imperative, requiring concerted efforts from the Indian government.

Standardized Implementation of Model Prison Manual 2016

Uneven implementation of the Model Prison Manual 2016 across states necessitates urgent attention. The government should mandate every state to adhere to the recommendations outlined in the manual, ensuring uniformity in menstrual hygiene provisions across prison facilities.

Public Health Approach

Addressing menstruation challenges in prisons through a public health lens is crucial, especially in combating 'period poverty'. Collaboration between public health authorities and prison administrators is essential to develop a comprehensive strategy. This strategy should prioritize access to adequate menstrual hygiene products and facilities while safeguarding the health and dignity of incarcerated women.

Research and Data Collection

There is a dearth of empirical evidence regarding menstrual hygiene within prison walls. Urgent research is required to understand the current state of menstrual hygiene in prisons comprehensively. This research will provide valuable insights to inform policy decisions and interventions aimed at improving menstrual hygiene management in prison settings.

 

5. Way Forward

 

The Indian government can take significant strides towards ensuring the health, dignity, and rights of incarcerated women. Collaborative efforts between government agencies, public health authorities, prison administrators, and researchers are essential to address the unique challenges faced by women in prisons regarding menstrual hygiene.

 

For Prelims: Menstrual Hygiene, National Family Health Survey, Model Prison Manual 2016, National Crime Records Bureau For Mains:  1. The Model Prison Manual 2016 outlines guidelines for prison facilities, yet its implementation regarding menstrual hygiene for female prisoners remains uneven across states. Critically examine the challenges associated with policy implementation in the Indian prison system. Suggest ways to ensure effective enforcement of such policies. (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021) 1. When a prisoner makes out a sufficient case, parole cannot be denied to such prisoner because it becomes a matter of his/her right. B. State Governments have their own Prisoners Release on Parole Rules. which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 only            C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2   2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023) Statement-I: In India, prisons are managed by State Governments with their own rules and regulations for the day-to-day administration of prisons. Statement-II: In India, prisons are governed by the Prisons Act, of 1894 which expressly kept the subject of prisons in the control of Provincial Governments. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? A. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I B. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect D. Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct   3. As per National Crime Record Bureau, which of the following Indian states has the highest crime rate as in 2017? (MPPEB Assistant Grade III/Stenographer (Group 4) 2018) A. Patna      B. Bangalore    C. Mumbai    D. Delhi Answers: 1-B, 2-A, 3-D Mains: 1. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space? (UPSC 2019)

Source: The Hindu

EUCALYPTUS PLANTATION

 

 

1. Context

 

Recently, the Kerala government initially allowed the Kerala Forest Development Corporation (KFDC) to plant eucalyptus trees in 2024-2025. Environmentalists argued this would harm forests and increase conflicts between humans and animals. Following these protests, the government clarified that the order only permitted cutting existing eucalyptus trees, not planting new ones.

 

2. Eucalyptus Tree

 

Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees and shrubs, predominantly native to Australia. Over 700 species of eucalyptus exist, and they have been widely planted in many other parts of the world, including India, due to their fast growth and valuable wood properties.

Characteristics

Eucalyptus trees are known for their distinctive leaves, which are often long, narrow, and aromatic due to the presence of essential oils. Their smooth bark sheds in strips, revealing a colourful, mottled trunk beneath.

Uses

1. Eucalyptus wood is used for construction, furniture, and paper production due to its durability and fast growth.
2. Eucalyptus oil is extracted for medicinal purposes, including use in cough drops, inhalants, and antiseptics.
3. Some eucalyptus species are planted as ornamental trees in gardens and parks.

Environmental Impact

Despite its economic benefits, eucalyptus cultivation has several environmental downsides:

1. Eucalyptus trees have high water requirements, which can deplete local water resources and affect surrounding vegetation.
2. The leaf litter from eucalyptus trees contains allelopathic chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plant species, leading to reduced biodiversity.
3. Eucalyptus trees are highly flammable due to their oil-rich leaves and bark, increasing the risk and intensity of forest fires.
4. eucalyptus can become invasive in non-native areas, outcompeting indigenous flora and altering local ecosystems.

3.  KFDC and Its Plantations

 

The Kerala Forest Development Corporation (KFDC) was established on January 24, 1975, as part of a dynamic production forestry enterprise. According to the KFDC website, the corporation manages approximately 7,000 hectares (ha) of plantations.

Plantation Working Circle

• The KFDC's plantation working circle includes the following species Eucalyptus grandis, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia mangium, Acacia crassicarpa, Acacia pycnantha (also known as wattle), Alnus nepalensis, Casuarina equisetifolia and Pinus patula. 
• Different species within the plantations have varying rotation ages Eucalyptus plantations: 9 years, Acacia auriculiformis: 18 years and Acacia mangium: 7 years. 
• At the end of each cycle, plantations approved by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change are felled.
• Clear-felled plantations are replanted with species listed in a management plan. Before replanting, experts assess soil quality and consult with the Kerala Forest Research Institute.
• As of this month, the KFDC website also indicates that plantations of exotic species, including eucalyptus, will be converted to those of indigenous species once the exotic flora has been felled, aiming to be more ecologically and environmentally friendly.

 

4. Issues with the Government Order

 

In 2021, the State government published an eco-restoration policy aimed at addressing several environmental concerns. A key focus of this policy was the "proliferation of invasive species that are not suitable for our environment" and the consequent "depletion of natural forests." According to the policy, this depletion was forcing wild animals to encroach on human-occupied land in search of food, thereby increasing human-wildlife conflicts.

Impact of Invasive Species

A recent study by the Kerala State Forest Protective Staff Organisation an association of frontline forest officers highlighted the benefits of replacing exotic plants with native species in forested areas. For instance, ensuring food availability for wild elephants at Chinnakanal in Munnar could be achieved by replacing eucalyptus trees, which dominate the prime elephant habitat in the Munnar forest division, with natural species.

Policy Acknowledgements and Priorities

The policy also acknowledged that invasive species of plants and animals had caused "serious damage to natural habitats and ecosystems." It emphasized that "eradicating such invasive species" was a high priority.

Environmental Activists' Concerns

Environmental activists argued that the State’s order permitting the KFDC to plant eucalyptus trees contradicted the eco-restoration policy's goals. They claimed it undermined efforts to combat invasive species and mitigate human-animal conflicts, thus jeopardizing the policy's aspirations.

 

5. Eco-Restoration

 

Kerala has around 27,000 hectares under industrial plantations. Against the backdrop of climate change and the mitigation potential that trees offer, the Kerala government decided to phase out plantations of eucalyptus, acacia, wattle, and pine by 2024, replacing them with natural forests. This process is known as eco-restoration. Many of these areas are currently overwhelmed with invasive species.

Marayoor Sandal Division Project

In 2019, the forest department initiated an eco-restoration project in the Marayoor Sandal Division in Idukki, supported by the UNDP, the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, and the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority. The project involved removing approximately 108 hectares of exotic species to allow natural grasses to flourish. As a result, water streams in the area were restored after a 30-year gap.

 

6. Way Forward

 

By prioritizing native species and adhering to the eco-restoration policy, the government and KFDC can contribute to preserving Kerala's natural environment while meeting their economic goals through sustainable forestry practices.

 

 

For Prelims: Kerala Forest Department Corporation, Eucalyptus, Marayoor Sandal Division Project For Mains:  1. Evaluate the role of environmental activism in shaping government policy decisions in India. Use the example of the controversy surrounding eucalyptus plantations in Kerala to substantiate your answer. (250 words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists: (HPPSC AE Civil 2016) List-I                              List-II A. Deciduous            1. Softwood B. Conifer                 2. Hardwood C. Endogenous         3. Eucalyptus D. Exogenous          4. Bamboo 1. A – 1, B – 2, C – 3, D - 4 2. A – 2, B – 1, C – 3, D - 4 3. A – 2, B – 1, C – 4, D - 3 4. A – 1, B – 2, C – 4, D - 3 Answer: C

 

Source: The Hindu