ARTICLE 370
1. Context
2. Article 370 of the Indian Constitution
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution is a provision that granted special autonomous status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). It played a crucial role in shaping the relationship between the Indian government and the region but has also been a topic of intense debate and controversy. This article aims to provide an overview of Article 370, its historical context, key provisions, and the debates surrounding its revocation.
3. Historical Context
Article 370 was incorporated into the Indian Constitution in 1949, during the process of integrating the princely states into the newly independent India. At the time, Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh. The article was introduced to accommodate the unique circumstances of the region and to respect the wishes of its people.
4. Key Provisions of Article 370:
- Autonomy: Article 370 granted Jammu and Kashmir a certain degree of autonomy, allowing it to have its own constitution, flag, and the power to legislate on matters other than defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
- Application of Central Laws: The central government had limited jurisdiction in the state, and its laws were only applicable if the state government specifically consented.
- Dual Citizenship: Residents of Jammu and Kashmir were considered citizens of both the state and India. This provision was meant to preserve the distinct identity of the region.
5. Contemporary Debates and Criticisms:
- Integration vs. Alienation: Critics of Article 370 argued that it perpetuated a sense of separatism and hindered the integration of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of India. They claimed that the special status prevented the extension of progressive laws and policies to the region.
- Gender Inequality: Another point of contention was the discriminatory provision that denied property rights to women who married individuals from outside the state. This provision was seen as undermining the principles of gender equality and human rights.
- National Security Concerns: Some argued that the autonomous status provided by Article 370 hindered the Indian government's ability to effectively tackle security challenges in the region, particularly the cross-border militancy.
6. Revocation of Article 370
In August 2019, the Indian government, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, made the historic decision to revoke the special status of Jammu and Kashmir. The government argued that this move would facilitate the integration of the region and bring socio-economic development to its people. However, the revocation was met with mixed reactions, both within and outside of the region.
7. Way forward
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution was a unique provision that granted special autonomous status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. While it aimed to respect the aspirations of the people of the region, it also sparked debates and controversies. The decision to revoke Article 370 in 2019 marked a significant shift in the relationship between the Indian government and Jammu and Kashmir. The consequences of this decision, both positive and negative, are still unfolding, and the future trajectory of the region remains uncertain.
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For Prelims: Article 370, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Maharaja Hari Singh, Central laws, Dual Citizenship, Gender inequality. For Mains: 1. Discuss the historical background and significance of Article 370 of the Indian Constitution. Analyze its provisions and their impact on the governance and autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir. (250 words). |
Previous year Question1. When did the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir come into force? (UPSC CAPF 2016) A.26th January 1957 B. 15th August 1947 C. 25th July 1956 D.14th November 1947 Answer: A 2. State Legislature of Jammu and Kashmir can confer special rights and privileges on permanent residents of J and K with respect to - (MPSC 2019) Find the correct options below. (a) Employment under State Government (b) Settlement in the state (c) Acquisition of immovable property (d) Right to Scholarship (e) Right to entry into heritage sites A. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) B. (a), (b), (c), (d) C. (a), (b), (c) D. (a), (b) Answer: B |
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:
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Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.
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Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.
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Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).
3. Measuring GDP
GDP can be measured in three different ways:
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Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.
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Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.
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GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.
The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.
Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy
4. Gross Value Added (GVA)
Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.
GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:
GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption
Where:
- Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
- Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:
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Definition and Scope:
- GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
- GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.
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Foreign Income and Payments:
- GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
- GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.
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Net Factor Income from Abroad:
- GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
- GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.
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Foreign Direct Investment:
- GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
- GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.
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Measurement Approach:
- GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
- GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.
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For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP
For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth
2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth
3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b)
2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)
Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021) |
HEATWAVE
1. Context
2. What is a Heat Wave?
- A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
- Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
- This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
- The last three years have been La Niña years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Niño year. (The El Niño is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads westeast across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.)
- As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Niño this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
- Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Niño years.
3. How do Heat waves Occur?
- Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or it is being produced locally.
- It is a local phenomenon when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.
- First of all, in spring, India typically has air flowing in from the westnorthwest. This direction of airflow is bad news for India for several reasons.
- Likewise, air flowing in from the northwest rolls in over the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan, so some of the compression also happens on the leeward side of these mountains, entering India with a bristling warmth.
- While air flowing over the oceans is expected to bring cooler air, the Arabian Sea is warming faster than most other ocean regions.
- Next, the strong upper atmospheric westerly winds, from the Atlantic Ocean to India during spring, control the near-surface winds.
- Any time winds flow from the west to the east, we need to remember that the winds are blowing faster than the planet which also rotates from west to east.
- The energy to run past the earth near the surface, against surface friction, can only come from above. This descending air compresses and warms up to generate some heat waves.
4. Impacts of heat waves in India
- The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
- For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
- Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
- Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
- Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
- Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
- According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
- The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
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The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
5. How does air mass contribute to heat waves?
- The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
- The north northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1600 km away and are around two days old.
- Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand, arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400km) and are barely a day old. As a result, they are on average less intense.
6. Way ahead for Heat waves
- Identifying heat hot spots through appropriate tracking of meteorological data and promoting timely development and implementation of local Heat Action Plans with strategic inter-agency coordination, and a response that targets the most vulnerable groups.
- Review existing occupational health standards, labor laws, and sectoral regulations for worker safety in relation to climatic conditions.
- Policy intervention and coordination across three sectors health, water, and power are necessary.
- Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
- Popularisation of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks, and insulating house materials.
- Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response that the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
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Previous Year Questions
1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010)
1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013) |
RBI'S FRAMEWORK TO ADMINISTER PROJECT FINANCING
- Infrastructure projects typically have long gestation periods and a higher likelihood of financial non-viability.
- Depending on the scale and technology involved, these projects may require loans with extended tenures.
- They also often encounter multiple obstacles, leading to delays or cost overruns.
- According to the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation’s March review of 1,837 projects, 779 were delayed and 449 faced cost overruns.
- These delays were attributed to land acquisition, obtaining forest and environment clearances, and project scope and size changes.
- These factors deter banks, which have priced the associated risks in a specific manner on their books.
- The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is proposing a new framework to address potential problems (credit events) in long-term infrastructure financing.
- These credit events could include loan defaults, delays in project completion (extending the DCCO), needing additional debt, or a decrease in the project's Net Present Value (NPV).
- A key change involves provisioning. This means setting aside money upfront to cover potential losses.
- The RBI proposes a significant increase in provisioning from the current 0.4% to 5% during the construction stage (before the project starts commercial operations).
- This is expected to make lenders more cautious but may also discourage some infrastructure developers in the short term.
- The 5% provisioning requirement will also be implemented gradually.
- The framework stipulates that all mandatory prerequisites must be met before financial closure, which is the finalization of financial conditions.
- An indicative list of these prerequisites includes obtaining environmental, regulatory, and legal clearances relevant to the project.
- The Date of Commencement of Commercial Operations (DCCO) must be explicitly defined.
- Financial disbursals will be made, and progress in equity infusion will be agreed upon based on the stages of completion.
- Banks are responsible for deploying an independent engineer or architect to certify the project's progress.
- The RBI also proposes that a positive Net Present Value (NPV) be a prerequisite for obtaining project finance.
- Additionally, it seeks to mandate that lenders have the project's NPV independently re-evaluated annually. This measure aims to help lenders prevent the build-up of financial stress and to ensure they have an actionable plan in place.
- Repayment norms can be revised. However, the proposed framework stipulates that the original or revised repayment tenure, including the moratorium period, must not exceed 85% of the project's economic life.
- The RBI’s proposed framework also sets criteria for revising the repayment schedule due to an increase in project outlay resulting from changes in scope and size.
- This revision must occur before the DCCO, following a satisfactory reassessment by lenders regarding the project's viability, particularly if the risk in project cost excluding any cost overrun is 25% or more of the original outlay.
- Additionally, the framework introduces guidelines for triggering a standby credit facility, which is to be sanctioned at the time of financial closure to cover overruns due to delays.
- Ratings agency ICRA noted in a report that the higher provisioning requirement for projects under implementation could negatively impact the near-term profitability of non-banking financial companies (NBFCs) and infrastructure financing companies.
- However, during their recent earnings calls, the State Bank of India (SBI), Union Bank of India, and Bank of Baroda expressed confidence that the proposal would not have any “significant” impact on their financials.
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For Prelims: RBI, NBFC, SBI, DDCO,
For Mains:
1. Infrastructure projects in India often face challenges like delays and cost overruns. How does the RBI's proposed framework address these concerns? Discuss the potential impact on project financing activity. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. An increase in the Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of the rupee.
2. An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
3. An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
Which of the above statements are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015) 1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade.
2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 3. Which one of the following activities of the Reserve Bank of India is considered to be part of 'sterilization’? (UPSC 2023) (a) Conducting 'Open Market Operations' (b) Oversight of settlement and payment systems (c) Debt and cash management for the Central and State Governments (d) Regulating the functions of Non-banking Financial Institutions 4. In India, which one of the following is responsible for maintaining price stability by controlling inflation? (UPSC 2022) (a) Department of Consumer Affairs (b) Expenditure Management Commission (c) Financial Stability and Development Council (d) Reserve Bank of India 5. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021) 1. Retail investors through demat account can invest in ‘Treasury Bills’ and ‘Government of India Debt Bonds’ in primary market.
2. The ‘Negotiated Dealing System-Order Matching’ is a government securities trading platform of the Reserve Bank of India.
3. The ‘Central Depository Services Ltd.’ is jointly promoted by the Reserve Bank of India and the Bombay Stock Exchange.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only 6. Consider the following statements (UPSC 2021) 1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answers: 1-C, 2-B 3-A, 4-A, 5-B, 6-C |
LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINTS ANALYSIS
- A recent study titled "Water, Air Pollution, and Carbon Footprints of Conspicuous/Luxury Consumption in India," to which the author contributed, highlights the environmental impact of affluent individuals, particularly those engaging in consumption beyond basic needs.
- This study specifically examines the CO2, water, and particulate matter (PM2.5) footprints associated with luxury consumption choices among households in India across different economic classes.
- The analysis contrasts these luxury consumption footprints with those associated with non-luxury consumption.
- The luxury consumption basket includes categories such as dining out, vacations, furniture, and social events.
The study utilized a specific methodology to assess the environmental impact of household consumption patterns in India, particularly focusing on the divide between luxury and non-luxury goods and services. Here's a breakdown of the approach:
- The study employed an input-output analysis of the entire Indian economy. This method examines the interconnectedness between different sectors and how resources or materials flow through the production process.
- By applying this analysis to household consumption, the researchers were able to map different consumption choices (luxury vs. non-luxury) to the resources and materials required for their production.
- This approach is crucial because it goes beyond direct household water usage or emissions. It captures the "embedded" environmental impact throughout the production chain of the goods and services consumed.
- The study utilized different footprint metrics to quantify the environmental impact:
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- Water Footprint metric considers both the direct water usage by households and the embedded water used at various stages of production for the consumed goods and services.
- PM2.5 Footprint metric captures both the embedded PM2.5 emissions associated with production and the direct emissions from household activities like burning fuelwood, kerosene, and using vehicles.
- CO2 Footprint Similar to the PM2.5 footprint, the CO2 footprint encompasses both the embedded emissions from production and the direct CO2 emissions generated by household consumption.
- The study reveals that all three environmental footprints increase as households move from poorer to richer economic classes.
- Specifically, the footprints of the richest 10% of households are approximately double the overall average across the population.
- A notable surge in footprints is observed from the ninth to the 10th decile, with the air pollution footprint experiencing the highest increase at 68% in the 10th decile compared to the ninth.
- Conversely, the rise in the water footprint is the lowest at 39%, while CO2 emissions stand at 55%.
- This suggests that Indian consumers, particularly those in the top decile, are still in the ‘take-off’ stage, with only the wealthiest segment exhibiting substantial increases in consumption-related environmental footprints.
- The heightened footprints in the 10th decile are primarily attributed to increased expenditure on luxury consumption items.
- The study identifies eating out/restaurants as a significant contributor to the rise in environmental footprints, particularly in the top decile households, across all three footprints.
- Additionally, the consumption of fruits and nuts is highlighted as a factor driving the increase in water footprint in the 10th decile. Luxury consumption items such as personal goods, jewellery, and eating out contribute to the rise in CO2 and air pollution footprints.
- Notably, the presence of fuels like firewood in the consumption baskets of poorer households is emphasized, showcasing the contrasting impacts of modern energy transitions.
- While transitioning from biomass to LPG reduces direct footprints, the lifestyle choices associated with affluence lead to a rise in PM2.5 footprints (and subsequently, the CO2 footprint).
- The average per capita CO2 footprint of the top decile in India, at 6.7 tonnes per capita per year, is noted to be higher than the global average of 4.7 tonnes in 2010 and the annual average of 1.9 tonnes CO2eq/cap required to achieve the Paris agreement target of 1.5°C.
- While still below the levels of the average citizen in the U.S. or U.K., this disparity underscores the need for urgent attention from policymakers.
- Given the influence of elite lifestyles on broader societal aspirations, policymakers should prioritize efforts to nudge consumption levels of affluent households downwards to align with sustainability goals.
- The study emphasizes that while sustainability efforts often focus on global climate change, global environmental footprints do not necessarily align with local and regional scale footprints.
- However, local and regional environmental issues exacerbated by luxury consumption disproportionately affect marginalized communities.
- For instance, water scarcity and air pollution disproportionately impact marginalized groups, further marginalizing them, while affluent sections can afford protective measures such as air-conditioned cars and air purifiers.
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For Prelims: Air Pollution, Water Pollution, PM 2.5, CO2, Carbon footprint
For Mains:
1. Discuss the importance of environmental justice. How can policymakers integrate environmental justice considerations into sustainability efforts in India, ensuring equitable distribution of environmental burdens and benefits? (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? ( UPSC 2016) 1. Carbon dioxide
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Nitrogen dioxide
4. Sulfur dioxide
5. Methane
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 2. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen
(b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide
(c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide
(d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide
3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions
Answer: 1-B, 2-D, 3-C Mains:
1. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? ( UPSC 2021)
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MALARIA
Symptoms of malaria typically appear 10-15 days after the infective mosquito bite and include:
- Fever
- Chills
- Headache
- Nausea and vomiting
- Muscle pain and fatigue
- Sweating
- Anemia (due to the destruction of red blood cells)
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes due to liver damage)
In severe cases, malaria can cause complications such as:
- Cerebral malaria (affecting the brain)
- Severe anemia
- Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
- Organ failure
| Type of Malaria | Prevalence | Severity | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Plasmodium falciparum | Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia | Most severe, causes majority of malaria-related deaths | Severe anemia, cerebral malaria, multi-organ failure, irregular fever patterns |
| Plasmodium vivax | Asia, Latin America, parts of Africa | Less severe than P. falciparum but causes significant illness | Relapsing malaria due to dormant liver stages (hypnozoites), tertian fever patterns (every 48 hours) |
| Plasmodium ovale | West Africa, other parts of Africa, western Pacific islands, Southeast Asia | Less severe than P. falciparum, similar to P. vivax | Causes relapses due to hypnozoites, tertian fever patterns (every 48 hours) |
| Plasmodium malariae | Worldwide, less common than P. falciparum and P. vivax | Milder form of malaria, chronic infections can persist for years | Quartan fever pattern (every 72 hours), chronic infections can lead to nephrotic syndrome (a serious kidney condition) |
| Plasmodium knowlesi | Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia | Can cause severe, rapidly progressing infections similar to P. falciparum | Originally a parasite of macaques, can be transmitted to humans, daily fever patterns (every 24 hours) |
Vaccination for malaria has been a significant focus of research and development due to the global impact of the disease. Here is an overview of the current status and progress in malaria vaccines:
RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix)
- Developer: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) in partnership with the PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative and supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
- Target Parasite: Plasmodium falciparum.
- Mechanism: The RTS,S/AS01 vaccine targets the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) of the malaria parasite, which is crucial for the parasite's ability to infect liver cells.
- Efficacy: Provides partial protection, with efficacy varying by age and number of doses. In clinical trials, it reduced malaria cases by about 30-50% in young children.
- Implementation: Approved by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021. Pilot programs have been launched in several African countries, including Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi, to assess real-world effectiveness and feasibility.
R21/Matrix-M
- Developer: University of Oxford in collaboration with the Serum Institute of India and Novavax.
- Target Parasite: Plasmodium falciparum.
- Mechanism: Similar to RTS,S, this vaccine also targets the CSP of the malaria parasite but includes a different adjuvant (Matrix-M) to enhance immune response.
- Efficacy: Preliminary studies have shown higher efficacy rates compared to RTS,S, with up to 77% efficacy in initial trials.
- Status: Undergoing further clinical trials to confirm efficacy and safety before broader implementation.
Other Candidates
- SPf66: An earlier vaccine candidate developed in Colombia, showed variable efficacy in trials and is no longer pursued.
- PfSPZ Vaccine: Developed by Sanaria Inc., it uses live, attenuated sporozoites to induce immunity. It has shown promise in early-phase trials but requires more extensive testing.
Challenges and Future Directions
- Efficacy: While current vaccines like RTS,S and R21 show partial efficacy, there is a need for vaccines with higher and more durable protection.
- Multiple Strains: Plasmodium falciparum's genetic diversity poses a challenge for creating a universally effective vaccine.
- Combination Approaches: Research is ongoing into combining vaccines with other malaria control measures such as bed nets, antimalarial drugs, and vector control strategies.
- Long-term Immunity: Efforts are focused on developing vaccines that provide long-lasting immunity, potentially reducing the need for frequent booster doses.
Adjuvant technology refers to the use of substances in vaccines that enhance the body's immune response to the provided antigen. These substances, called adjuvants, are crucial for improving the efficacy of vaccines, especially those that rely on weaker antigens or aim to induce a stronger and longer-lasting immunity. Here's a detailed overview of adjuvant technology:
Purpose of Adjuvants
- Enhance Immune Response: Adjuvants help to boost the magnitude and duration of the immune response to an antigen.
- Dose Sparing: By enhancing the immune response, adjuvants can reduce the amount of antigen needed in each vaccine dose.
- Broadening Immunity: They can help generate a more comprehensive immune response, including both humoral (antibody-mediated) and cellular immunity.
- Improving Efficacy in Diverse Populations: Adjuvants can enhance vaccine efficacy in populations with weaker immune responses, such as the elderly or immunocompromised individuals.
Types of Adjuvants
Several types of adjuvants are used in vaccines, each with different mechanisms of action. Some common adjuvants include:
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Aluminum Salts (Alum):
- Description: One of the oldest and most widely used adjuvants.
- Mechanism: Enhances antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells and stimulates a strong antibody response.
- Use: Found in vaccines for diseases like hepatitis B and diphtheria-tetanus.
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Oil-in-Water Emulsions:
- Examples: MF59, AS03.
- Mechanism: Enhance the recruitment and activation of immune cells at the injection site.
- Use: Found in influenza vaccines.
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Saponin-Based Adjuvants:
- Examples: QS-21.
- Mechanism: Enhance both antibody and cell-mediated immune responses.
- Use: Found in vaccines for malaria (RTS,S) and herpes zoster (Shingrix).
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Toll-like Receptor (TLR) Agonists:
- Examples: CpG 1018, MPL (Monophosphoryl lipid A).
- Mechanism: Mimic microbial components to activate innate immune responses.
- Use: Found in hepatitis B vaccines (Heplisav-B) and HPV vaccines (Cervarix).
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Liposomes:
- Description: Spherical vesicles that can encapsulate antigens and adjuvants.
- Mechanism: Enhance antigen delivery and stimulate strong immune responses.
- Use: Under research for various vaccines.
Role in Malaria Vaccines
In malaria vaccines, adjuvants are essential for inducing a robust immune response against the malaria parasite, which has a complex life cycle and various evasion strategies.
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RTS,S/AS01:
- Adjuvant: AS01, which includes MPL and QS-21.
- Mechanism: Enhances both antibody and cell-mediated responses, crucial for targeting the liver stage of Plasmodium falciparum.
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R21/Matrix-M:
- Adjuvant: Matrix-M, a saponin-based adjuvant.
- Mechanism: Stimulates strong immune responses, potentially offering higher efficacy than RTS,S.
The recently released World Malaria Report shows that the number of cases and deaths due to the mosquito-borne infection in India has continued to decline.India’s downward trend was reflected in the larger WHO South East Asian region that remained on track to achieving the 2030 target of reducing cases and deaths by 90 percent, the report said.
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For Prelims: General Science, Current Events of National and International Importance For Mains: GS-II, III: Social Justice and International Relations; Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology, Developments and their Applications and Effects in Everyday Life |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine? (UPSC CSE 2010)
(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium Answer (b) The answer is (b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection. Here's why the other options are incorrect: (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium - While this is true, it doesn't directly explain the difficulty in developing a vaccine. A vaccine can target multiple strains as needed. (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria - This is not true. We have vaccines for many viral diseases as well. (d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host - This is a fact about the parasite's life cycle, but it doesn't impact vaccine development. |
NAEGLERIA FLOWERI
Naegleria fowleri typically enters the body through the nose, often when individuals are swimming. It then moves to the brain, where it damages brain tissue and causes swelling.
In a recent case in Kozhikode, it is suspected that a girl contracted the infection while swimming in a local river on May 1, along with four other children who did not develop symptoms and tested negative. It is important to note that Naegleria fowleri infection cannot occur from drinking contaminated water, and primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is not contagious
4. Symptoms and Treatment
Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a rare and often fatal brain infection caused by the amoeba Naegleria fowleri. The symptoms of PAM typically appear within one to nine days after exposure, with an average onset of about five days. The symptoms progress rapidly and can be divided into early and later stages:
Early Symptoms
Early symptoms often resemble those of bacterial meningitis and may include:
- Severe frontal headache
- Fever
- Nausea
- Vomiting
Later Symptoms
As the infection progresses, more severe symptoms can develop, such as:
- Stiff neck
- Confusion
- Lack of attention to people and surroundings
- Loss of balance
- Seizures
- Hallucinations
- Altered mental status
- Sensitivity to light
Treatment
Early detection and treatment are crucial for improving the chances of survival, though the prognosis for PAM is generally poor due to the rapid progression of the disease.
If PAM is suspected, immediate medical attention and treatment are essential. The standard treatment typically involves a combination of antifungal and antimicrobial drugs, including amphotericin B, rifampin, and miltefosine, among others. However, due to the rarity and severity of the infection, effective treatment options are limited, and prevention through avoiding exposure to contaminated water is critical
5. Way Forward
There have been 20 reported cases of PAM in India, with the Kozhikode case being the seventh such infection in Kerala. In July 2023, a 15-year-old boy died of it in Alappuzha. The first incident in Kerala was also reported in Alappuzha in 2016, perhaps due to the large number of water bodies here. Since then, infections have been reported in Malappuram, Kozhikode and Thrissur
Source: Indianexpress
