POKHRAN- I
On this day in 1974, India conducted its historic first nuclear tests in Pokhran, Rajasthan, as part of the 'Smiling Buddha' operation. The event was shrouded in secrecy until its occurrence, amidst efforts by major world powers to curb the spread of nuclear weapons among states.
2. Background to India's Nuclear Tests
- In the aftermath of World War II, which wrought immense devastation and loss of life, global dynamics shifted, giving rise to new alliances and rivalries. The Cold War era saw the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in proxy conflicts worldwide, driven by ideological and economic competition.
- The detonation of nuclear bombs by the US over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, followed by the Soviet Union's nuclear test in 1949, underscored the urgent need for regulations to prevent catastrophic consequences from nuclear warfare.
- In response, the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) was drafted and signed in 1968. The treaty designated nuclear-weapon States, including those that had conducted nuclear tests before January 1, 1967, commonly referred to as the P-5 countries the United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia.
Key Provisions of the NPT
- Signatories committed to refraining from transferring nuclear weapons or related technology to other states.
- Non-nuclear states pledged not to develop, acquire, or receive nuclear weapons.
- All parties agreed to abide by safeguards established by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to prevent nuclear proliferation.
- Parties to the treaty vowed to contribute to the cessation of the nuclear arms race and to mitigate the spread of nuclear technology.
Opposition to Discriminatory Treaties
India opposed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) due to its perceived discriminatory nature, which favoured the nuclear-weapon states (P-5). The treaty's failure to impose concrete obligations on existing nuclear-armed states while restricting non-nuclear states raised objections from India.
National Security Concerns
The shifting geopolitical landscape, marked by conflicts and the emergence of nuclear-armed neighbours, fueled India's apprehensions regarding its national security. Wars with China in 1962 and with Pakistan in 1965 and 1971, coupled with China's nuclear tests in 1964, underscored the need for India to reassess its defense strategy.
Scientific Advancement and Self-Reliance
Pioneering efforts in nuclear energy by scientists like Homi J Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai laid the foundation for India's nuclear program. The establishment of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1954 under Bhabha's leadership reflected India's commitment to harnessing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, including energy production.
Changing Leadership Dynamics
The demise of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the succession of Morarji Desai in the 1960s, coupled with geopolitical shifts and military conflicts, influenced India's nuclear policy. While Nehru remained cautious about nuclear weapons, subsequent leaders were more receptive to the idea, especially in light of regional security challenges.
4. Execution of Pokhran-I
- Prime Minister Indira Gandhi diverged from Nehru's stance on nuclear tests, displaying a more receptive attitude. However, cognizant of international treaties enforced by the P-5 nations, India opted for clandestine nuclear testing without prior disclosure.
- On May 18, 1974, a nuclear device was detonated at Pokhran, situated in the arid expanse of western Rajasthan. This remote location, designated as an army test range, provided a secluded environment conducive to conducting the tests discreetly.
- Approximately 75 researchers and scientists were enlisted for the operation, working diligently to ensure its success. The codename "Smiling Buddha" was chosen, symbolic of the auspicious occasion coinciding with Buddha Jayanti, the birth anniversary of Gautama Buddha.
- With a yield estimated at 12-13 kilotons of TNT, Pokhran-I marked a significant milestone in India's nuclear endeavours, underscoring its resolve to assert its technological prowess and strategic autonomy on the global stage.
- Following the Pokhran-I tests, India refrained from immediate weaponization of its nuclear capabilities, opting to demonstrate defensive readiness rather than aggressive posturing. The decision to withhold weaponization was deferred until the Pokhran-II tests in 1998.
- However, India encountered significant backlash from various nations in the aftermath of the tests. In 1978, US President Jimmy Carter signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act, leading to the cessation of nuclear assistance from the US to India. The relationship between the two countries remained strained until July 18, 2005, when US President George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh announced their intent to establish a nuclear agreement, signalling a shift in the US stance.
- Simultaneously, the US advocated for the establishment of a consortium comprising nuclear equipment and fissile material suppliers, known as the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). This group, consisting of 48 nations, formulated regulations for nuclear equipment export, with admission granted solely through consensus.
- Since 2008, India has been actively pursuing membership in the NSG, aiming to secure a prominent position in the global nuclear landscape and facilitate nuclear commerce. Despite initial opposition from countries like Australia, India's persistent efforts have garnered support from various nations, with Mexico and Switzerland being the latest endorsers. India's strategic diplomacy aims to overcome resistance and gain admission to the NSG, notwithstanding the sole dissenting voice of China.
- The delayed progression to nuclear weaponization, coupled with India's portrayal as a responsible nuclear power, has gradually fostered acceptance among nations and facilitated its integration into influential international forums such as the NSG.
|
For Prelims: Pokhran-I, NSG, P-5 Countries
For Mains:
1. The concept of "responsible nuclear power" has been used to describe India's nuclear posture. Critically analyze this concept and its implications for global nuclear security. (250 Words)
2. Discuss the scientific and technological advancements that led to India's successful nuclear test at Pokhran-I. How can India leverage its nuclear expertise for peaceful applications like energy production? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. What is/are the consequence/consequences of a country becoming a member of the 'Nuclear Suppliers Group'? (UPSC 2018)
1. It will have access to the latest and most efficient nuclear technologies.
2. It automatically becomes a member of "The Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)".
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20? (UPSC 2020)
A. Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey
B. Australia, Canada, Malaysia and New Zealand
C. Brazil, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam
D. Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and South Korea
3. Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of (67th BPSC Prelims 2022) (Chhattisgarh Police SI Prelims 2012)
A. controlled fusion reaction
B. uncontrolled fusion reaction
C. controlled fission reaction
D. uncontrolled fission reaction
D. None of the above/More than one of the above
4. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium? (UPSC 2012)
1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium.
2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium.
3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
5. In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under "IAEA Safeguards" while others are not? (UPSC 2020)
A. Some use uranium and others use thorium
B. Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies
C. Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises
D. Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned
Answer: 1-A, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D, 5-B
|
RIGHT TO PROPERTY
The court said that there are seven basic procedural rights that Article 300A confers on a landowner and which need to be complied with before a valid acquisition. They are:
Fundamental Rights are a set of rights that are recognized and guaranteed by the constitution of a country as essential for the holistic development of individuals and for ensuring justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity in society. In the context of the Indian Constitution, Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III (Articles 12 to 35) and are considered vital for the protection of individual liberties and democratic principles.
Characteristics of Fundamental Rights
- Fundamental Rights are explicitly provided and protected by the Constitution.
- These rights apply universally to all citizens, irrespective of their race, religion, caste, gender, or place of birth.
- Individuals can directly approach the courts for the enforcement of their Fundamental Rights if they are violated.
- These rights are justiciable, meaning that they can be challenged and defended in a court of law.
- While Fundamental Rights are not absolute and can be reasonably restricted, such restrictions must be justifiable and in the public interest.
Right to Equality (Articles 14-18)
- Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of laws.
- Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
- Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
- Article 17: Abolition of untouchability.
- Article 18: Abolition of titles except for military and academic distinctions.
Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22)
- Article 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. (freedom of speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession).
- Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences (protection against ex-post facto laws, double jeopardy, and self-incrimination).
- Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
- Article 21A: Right to education.
- Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24)
- Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
- Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28)
- Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion.
- Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs.
- Article 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
- Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.
Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30)
- Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities (right to conserve language, script, or culture).
- Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
- Article 32: Right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights.
- They safeguard the liberties and freedoms of individuals against any arbitrary action by the state or other entities.
- Fundamental Rights ensure equality before the law and prohibit discrimination on various grounds.
- By guaranteeing freedoms such as speech and expression, they enable the functioning of a vibrant democracy.
- They provide a legal framework for the protection and redressal of rights, ensuring social, economic, and political justice.
- Fundamental Rights are essential for the development of the individual's personality and the preservation of human dignity.
- The state can impose reasonable restrictions on Fundamental Rights in the interest of sovereignty, security, public order, decency, or morality.
- While Fundamental Rights can be amended, such amendments must respect the basic structure of the Constitution, as laid down by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973).
- The Right to Property is not currently considered a fundamental right. The Constitution initially recognized it as a fundamental right under Article 31 until 1978.
- 44th Amendment of 1978 removed the Right to Property from the fundamental rights category (Articles 31 & 19(1)(f) were removed from Part III).
- The Right to Property remains a legal right protected under Article 300A, but it doesn't enjoy the same level of protection as fundamental rights. The government can acquire private property for public purposes, following due process and providing compensation.
- The primary motivation for removing the Right to Property from fundamental rights was that The government felt the absolute nature of the right hindered its ability to implement reforms that often involved land acquisition for public projects like infrastructure development or poverty alleviation schemes.
Article 300A states: "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." This essentially means that no one can be forced to give up their property unless there's a legal justification and the process is followed correctly.
Importance
Despite not being a fundamental right, Article 300A offers some crucial protections:
- It prevents the government from taking away property without legal justification.
- The article implies that compensation must be provided when property is acquired.
The judiciary can still review laws related to property acquisition to ensure they are fair and follow due process, even though the Right to Property isn't fundamental.
The Supreme Court of India plays a vital role in safeguarding the fundamental rights of Indian citizens.
Interpreter of the Constitution
- The Supreme Court is the ultimate authority on interpreting the Indian Constitution. It decides on the constitutionality of laws passed by the Parliament and state legislatures.
- If a law is found to violate fundamental rights enshrined in Part III of the Constitution, the Supreme Court can declare it null and void.
Enforcer of Fundamental Rights
- The Constitution empowers individuals to approach the Supreme Court directly through Writs (legal orders) like Habeas Corpus (to challenge unlawful detention) or Mandamus (to compel authorities to perform their legal duty) if their fundamental rights are violated.
- By issuing these writs, the Supreme Court can direct the government or its officials to uphold the fundamental rights of citizens.
Guardian of Justice
- The Supreme Court can review the decisions of lower courts to ensure justice is delivered fairly.
- It can also take up Public Interest Litigation (PIL) on behalf of disadvantaged groups or the public, even if there's no direct individual petitioner.
Landmark Judgments
The Supreme Court has a long history of delivering landmark judgments that have expanded the scope of fundamental rights and protected citizens' rights. These include:
- Right to life and liberty is interpreted to include the right to a decent standard of living and healthcare.
- Right to equality being used to promote social justice and affirmative action for disadvantaged groups.
- Right to freedom of speech and expression being used to protect freedom of the press and dissent.
Challenges and Limitations
- The Supreme Court's effectiveness can be impacted by factors like the backlog of cases and the time it takes to deliver judgments.
- The power of judicial review can sometimes create tension between the judiciary and the legislature.
7. Way Forward
The Supreme Court's recent ruling reaffirms the importance of property rights and due process in India's legal framework, highlighting the ongoing role of the judiciary in safeguarding the rights of citizens and upholding the principles of justice and equality.
|
For Prelims: Fundamental Rights, Article 300A, Right to Property, PIL
For Mains:
1. The principle of eminent domain allows the government to acquire private property for public good with just compensation. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in exercising this power and how to ensure it is not misused. (250 words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. What is the position of the Right to Property in India ? (UPSC 2021) a. Legal right available to citizens only
b. Legal right available to any person
c. Fundamental Right available, to citizens only
d. Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right
2. Article 300A of the Constitution of India deals with: (SSC JE ME 2021) A. financial emergency
B. all-India services
C. right to education
D. right to property
Answers: 1-B, 2-D |
Source: The Indian Express
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (NHAI)
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in the Government of India. Established by the National Highways Authority of India Act, 1988, NHAI is responsible for developing, maintaining, and managing the national highways network in India.
- Improving road connectivity across the country to support economic development and accessibility.
- Ensuring the efficient management of national highways through modern technology and best practices.
- Contributing to India's economic growth by improving transport infrastructure, thereby facilitating trade and commerce.
- Promoting road safety and environmental sustainability in highway projects.
Development and Expansion
- NHAI undertakes the construction, upgradation, and widening of national highways to improve connectivity and support economic growth. This includes converting single-lane roads to multi-lane highways.
- It implements various flagship projects like the Golden Quadrilateral and the North-South and East-West corridors, which aim to enhance the overall infrastructure and connectivity across the country.
Maintenance and Management
- NHAI ensures that the highways are well-maintained and safe for travel. This includes regular repairs, resurfacing, and the upkeep of infrastructure like bridges and tunnels.
- The authority manages traffic on national highways, ensuring smooth flow and reducing congestion through measures like installing toll plazas and implementing Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
Regulation and Enforcement
- NHAI oversees the collection of tolls on national highways. This revenue is used for the maintenance and development of the highway network.
- It enforces regulations related to highway usage, safety standards, and quality control during construction and maintenance activities.
Promotion of Safety and Sustainability
- NHAI implements various safety measures, including the construction of flyovers, bypasses, and pedestrian crossings, to reduce accidents and improve safety for all road users.
- The authority ensures that highway projects comply with environmental regulations, aiming to minimize the ecological impact and promote sustainable development practices.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)
- NHAI encourages private sector participation through PPP models, attracting investment for highway development projects. This helps in leveraging private capital and expertise for infrastructure development.
- Golden Quadrilateral is a project to connect four major cities of India – Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.
- Bharatmala Pariyojana is a comprehensive road development program aimed at optimizing the efficiency of freight and passenger movement across the country.
- North-South and East-West Corridors Projects aimed at improving connectivity between major cities and regions in India.
The Green Highways Policy 2015, launched by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), is an initiative to promote the eco-friendly development of National Highways in India. Here are its key goals:
- The policy aims to plant trees and shrubs along National Highways to create green corridors. This not only beautifies the highways but also addresses environmental concerns.
- Trees act as natural filters, absorbing air pollutants and dust. This helps in improving air quality around highways, which is especially important considering the increasing number of vehicles on the road.
- Planting vegetation on embankments helps prevent soil erosion, extending the highways' lifespan and reducing maintenance costs.
- The policy encourages the involvement of various stakeholders like farmers, the private sector, NGOs, and government institutions in plantation and maintenance activities.
|
For Prelims: NHAI, Green Highways Policy, Golden Quadrilateral, Bharatmala Pariyojana, North-South and East-West Corridors
For Mains:
1. Transparency and public trust are essential for large-scale infrastructure projects. Describe how NHAI can effectively engage with stakeholders and address public concerns regarding the social and environmental impacts of highway projects. (250 words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. In India, the National Green Highway Policy was launched in _______. (DSSSB TGT Social Studies 2021)
A. 2010 B. 2005 C. 2015 D. 2018
Answer: C
|
JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE
2. Background
- The James Webb Space Telescope took 30 years and $10 billion to build, has flown over 1.5 million kilometres away from Earth, and now, we will finally be seeing the first glimpse of its power with a collection of images.
- NASA has promised the deepest image of our universe that has ever been taken, and these first sets of images are only the first step in a long job of expanding our view of the universe.
- Webb inspires the world through discovery. The telescope will capture the highest resolution science images of the infrared universe on an unprecedented scale.
- The Webb telescope can view stars, galaxies, and planets in the infrared light spectrum. Its cameras and spectrographs are built to operate at extremely cold temperatures to conduct infrared science.
- Webb is one of the great engineering feats of humanity.
- Engineers invented 10 new technologies to detect infrared light of distant astronomical objects that benefit us here on Earth – with applications in medicine, aerospace, and other fields.
- Innovative spinoff technology has produced advances in eye surgery and better diagnoses of eye diseases
3. Scientific Goals of James Webb
- Webb will seek light from the first galaxies in the early universe, and it will explore our solar system, as well as nearby planets orbiting other stars.
- Themes highlighted in the first images and spectra include cutting-edge explorations of the early universe, the evolution of galaxies through time, the lifecycle of stars, and other worlds outside our solar system
- Webb’s unprecedented sensitivity to infrared light will help astronomers understand how galaxies assemble over billions of years.
- Webb will see through dust clouds, where stars and planetary systems are born.
- In addition to learning about our solar system, Webb will study the atmospheres of planets orbiting other stars, called exoplanets.
- Webb will reveal new and unexpected discoveries to help us understand our cosmic origins, seeking to answer age-old questions: How did the universe begin? How do galaxies form and evolve? How do we fit in the cosmos?
4. Quick Facts about James Webb
- Webb will orbit the Sun at the second Lagrange point, called L2, which is located one million miles from Earth.
- Webb’s sun shield is the size of a tennis court.
- It protects the sensitive equipment by creating a difference in temperature between the hot and cold sides of the spacecraft of almost 600 degrees Fahrenheit!
- Using its infra-red telescope, the JWST observatory will examine objects over 13.6 billion light-years away.
- Because of the time it takes light to travel across the Universe, this means that the JWST will effectively be looking at objects 13.6 billion years ago, an estimated 100 to 250 million years after the Big Bang.
- This is the furthest back in time ever observed by humanity.
- After launching into space, the JWST will orbit the Sun, flying up to 1.5 million kilometres from Earth in temperatures reaching -223°C.
- For comparison, the Moon is 384,400km away, while the Hubble Space Telescope flies only 570km above our planet. As the JWST will operate so far away from Earth, it will not be able to be serviced by astronauts if any faults arise.
4.1 About Lagrange Point
- L2 is one of the so-called Lagrangian points, discovered by mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange.
- Lagrangian points are locations in space where gravitational forces and the orbital motion of a body balance each other.
- Therefore, they can be used by spacecraft to 'hover'.
- L2 is located 1.5 million kilometres directly 'behind' the Earth as viewed from the Sun.
- It is about four times further away from the Earth than the Moon ever gets and orbits the Sun at the same rate as the Earth.
- It is a great place from which to observe the larger Universe. A spacecraft would not have to make constant orbits of the Earth, which result in it passing in and out of the Earth's shadow and causing it to heat up and cool down, distorting its view. Free from this restriction and far away from the heat radiated by Earth, L2 provides a much more stable viewpoint.
5. Mission of James Webb telescope
- As the JWST is a product of an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), it has many mission goals.
- These include:
- Examine the first light in the Universe and the celestial objects which formed shortly after the Big Bang.
- Investigate how galaxies form and evolve.
- Study the atmospheres of distant exoplanets.
- Capture images of planets in our solar system.
- Locate evidence of dark matter.
- The JWST is expected to operate for five years after its launch. However, NASA hopes the observatory will last longer than 10 years.
- Unfortunately, the observatory won’t be able to operate forever: although mostly solar-powered, the JWST needs a small amount of finite fuel to maintain its orbit and instruments.
Images Captured by JAMES WEBB
The JWST team has now announced the list of objects it has targeted with its first round of images. There will be five areas that are shown in these images:
5.1. Carina Nebula
- Both one of the largest and brightest nebulae in the sky, the Carina Nebula is roughly 7600 light-years away.
- The Carina Nebula houses some huge stars, several of which are much larger than the Sun.
5.2. WASP-96b
- WASP-96b is a giant planet that is found outside of our solar system.
- It is mostly composed of gas and is roughly 1150 light-years from Earth. It was discovered back in 2014.
5.3. Southern Ring Nebula
- An expanding cloud of gas surrounded by a dying star, the Southern Ring Nebula is the perfect opportunity to test the James Webb Space Telescope's infrared images.
- It is nearly half a light-year in diameter and is around 2000 light-years away from Earth.
5.4. Stephan's Quintet
- Stephan's Quintet is located an amazing 290 million light-years away.
- It was the first compact galaxy group ever discovered back in 1877 and will be the furthest image taken by the JWST.
5.5. SMACS 0723
- SMACS 0723 is a patch of sky in the southern constellation of Volans. It has a massive cluster of galaxies in the foreground which act like a massive magnifying glass. This is because their incredible mass causes a noticeable curvature of the space-time around them, magnifying light from distant objects.
6. IN HIGH-RES: UNFOLDING MYSTERIES OF THE NIGHT SKY
James Webb space, with the release of its first five stunning images, has demonstrated an acute observational capacity and revealed aspects of the cosmos hitherto hidden from other telescopes.
As light travels with a velocity of about 3, 00,000 km per second, light from a distant object will take time to reach earth. Hence when we see a distant stellar object, we see it as if it were far back in time. To collect more light we need giant infrared telescopes.JWST is the biggest infrared telescope ever built.
The spectroscopic observation of JWST reveals that there is a considerable amount of water vapour in the WASP-96 b’s atmosphere. However, due to the blistering heat, WASP-96 is unlikely to host life.
On November 30, 1609, Galileo turned his telescope towards the night sky. Until then, scholars held that celestial objects were without any kind of blemish. Galileo showed that the moon had raters and mountains
All celestial objects, including stars, were thought to go around the earth. The telescope, by observing phases of Venus firmly established that planets go around the sun and not the Earth.
The Milky Way, a haze in the night that teemed with hundreds of stars, established that the cosmos is immense and beyond our imagination.
7. JSWT OBSERVATIONS
The deep field image of the SMACS 0723 cluster of galaxies has images that date back to times when the first stars were born. The images from Carina Nebula vividly show the birth of new stars.
In contrast, the southern Ring Nebula image details a dying star.
In Stephan’s quintet, the JWST has captured the cataclysmic cosmic collision of galaxies.
By analyzing the spectrum of the radiation from WASP-96 b, an exoplanet, the telescope has shown conclusively the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere of this hot, puffy gas giant planet orbiting a distant sun-like star.
With its sharp vision, more light collecting area and ability to see in the invisible infrared regions, the JWST is sure to expand our understanding of the cosmos.
8. PEERING BACK IN TIME
About 13.8 billion years ago, through the big bang, our Universe emerged. The first stars and galaxies were born around 300 million years after the Big Bang. To know more about the formation of these stars and galaxies, we do not need a time machine or time travel. As light travels with a velocity of about 3,00,000 km per second, light from a distant object will take time to reach us on Earth. Hence when we see a distant stellar object, we see it as if it were far back in time. Powerful telescopes are, therefore, like time machines.
However, since the objects far away are dim, we need giant telescopes to collect more light. Further light from distant objects is stretched out by the expansion of our universe, driving radiation from the visible range into the infrared. Therefore to look deep back into the early phases of the universe we need a giant infrared telescope, JWST is the biggest infrared telescope ever built.
9. CLUSTER OF GALAXIES
The SMACS0723 is a noted cluster of galaxies around 5.12 light years away Situated in the direction of the southern constellation of Volans, the image is as it appeared 4.6 billion years ago, about the same time when the sun and earth evolved.
SMACS 0723 galaxy cluster is massive, which as Einstein’s general relativity theory predicts, distorts the fabric of space-time
Like the refraction of a ray of light passing through a lens, the light from behind bends through the massive cluster. Due to this’ gravitational lensing’ effect, we notice that some galaxies appear distorted in an arc shape, some are split into multiple images, and some are magnified.
The kaleidoscope of colours in the image captured by the JWST‘s Mid-infrared Instrument (MIRI) is false colours (False colour refers to colour rendering methods used to display images which were recorded in the visible or non–visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, in colour)corresponding to a radiation wavelength.
Galaxies that appear blue in this image contain stars but very little dust. The cosmic objects enveloped by dust appear red. Objects rich in hydrocarbons and other chemical compounds are green.
10. WHERE STARS ARE BORN
Stars and star clusters are formed inside giant gas clouds. Typically the massive interstellar clouds where new stars are formed are huge with diameters of about 100 light-years and holding nearly six million solar masses.
There is enough material for making hundreds of stars out of this.
Nonetheless, the density of these clouds is just 100 atoms per cubic centimetre. The visible light is obscured by the thick dust that goes into the making of these stars and renders it opaque. Shrouded in thick dust clouds, these star-forming regions remained hidden from even powerful telescopes, until now.
One such stellar nursery booming with new stars is a giant interstellar gas cloud in our galaxy called NG 3324, dubbed cosmic cliff, located approximately7600 light years from Earth, and is home to many massive and young stars than our sun.
With the giant gas cloud condensing into new stars, this is an active star-forming region. Hot gas and dust emit infrared light. By steering its NIRcam and MIRI instruments into the highly dense dust clouds, the JWST has revealed rich details of this star formation region.
The striking image shows many exciting features in the innards of the star-forming regions. Hundreds of baby stars, previously invisible to telescopes, shine through the dust cloud. Thin gas pervades the space between the stars called the interstellar medium.
When the infant star begins to shine, it below away the interstellar matter. The region devoid of gas appears in the image in the shape of bubbles and cavities.
The mountains and valleys in the interstellar medium shaped by the radiation from the bubbling stars are visible, while the stars located in the centre of the bubble are off the frame.
Other phenomena that one sees in the image include ionized gas and hot dust wafting away due to radiation from young stars, casing turbulence and eddy and dust swirling in the surrounding gas. What appears as a golden comet in this image is jet outflows from the newborn stars.
Two Indian astronomers are slated to use the JWST data to study star formation.
Manoj Puravankara will be using the data obtained from Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) and MIRI instruments to study the earliest phases of star formation, that is the protoplanetary disks- the birthplaces of planetary systems.
Jessy Jose, Assistant professor from the Department of Physics, IISER Tirupati will be part of an international collaboration to study the very massive, dense molecular cloud within the central molecule zone of our Milky Way to understand the young stellar objects within it
The NIRcam and MIRI instruments of JWST which broadly covers the wavelength range from 0.6 to 28 – micron meter will enable us to characterize the very early phase of star formation.
11. A STAR ON DEATHBED
The Eight Burst Nebula, also known as the southern Ring Nebula or NG 132 is a well-known planetary nebula in the constellation Vela, located approximately 2500 light years from Earth.
Planetary nebulae are gas shells formed from the cast-off outer layers of a dying star
Intermediate mass stars with a mass of 0.8 to eight times the mass of the sun end their lives with drama. They do not die in one big explosion but go through a cycle of fits and starts.
The dying star will expel its outer layer and expand, while simultaneously, its core will contract.
The contracting centre will once again start to emit energy, and the star will have a lease of life. The expelled shell is pushed by this radiation and expands in space like a ring around the central star
After some time the central star again shed its outré layer while the remaining core contracts.
Over time successive waves of expelled outer shells surround the central star–like concentric rings.
The remaining core of the star ultimately becomes a faint glowing white dwarf.
After trillion years they cool down and no longer shine, ultimately becoming black dwarfs. The near-infrared light is false-coloured blue, and the mid-infrared light is red in this impressive image by the JWST.
The consecutive waves of expelled shells can be seen clearly. In the central region, a redder star shining next to a bright blue one can be seen.
Astronomers knew that the southern Ring Nebula was a binary star system. For the first time, we can see the second star hidden behind the dust clouds .out the sun, an intermediate-mass star will undergo a similar fate.
12. COSMIC WALTZ
Situated in the direction of the constellation Pegasus, around 290 million light years away from Earth, is the clutch of five galaxies, each bound with the other called the Stephan’s Quintet.
Four of these close-knit galaxies are in a sort of dangerous waltz dance. Two of them are in process of merging.
Studying such cataclysmic galactic interactions will help us understand how these lead to star formation, evolution and central black holes in galaxies.
13. HUNT FOR THE EXTRATERRESTRIAL
The light from the central star will pass through the planet’s atmosphere when its edges are in the line of sight of the earth.The molecule present in the atmosphere will first absorb the light entering the atmosphere. Then it would be remitted
By comparing the star’s spectrum and the starlight passing through the planet’s atmosphere the astronomers can discern the molecular composition
Astronomers will use the same technique to examine other exoplanets, particularly those in the habitable zone of the central star
14. Important images released by NASA observed through James Web Telescope
FLASH FLOODS
2. What is a Flood
- Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
- Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
- Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break.
- Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.
- Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer.
- Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.
3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.
These factors include -
- Meteorological factors
- Physical factors
- Human factors
3.1 Meteorological Factors
The natural causes of floods are discussed below -
- Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
- Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
- Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
- Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
- Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
- Cyclone & Heavy rainfall
3.2. Physical Factors.
- Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
- Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.
3.3. Human Factor
- Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
- Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood.
- Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
- Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
- Unplanned Development
- Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
4.Types of Flood
- Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
- Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
- River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
- Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
- Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences.
- Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
- Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
- Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
- Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
- Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:
- Attempts to modify the flood
- Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
- Attempts to modify the loss burden
- Bearing the loss.
- The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.
6.1 Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
- Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
- Dams and reservoirs
- Natural detention basins
- Channel improvement
- Drainage improvement
- Diversion of flood waters.
6.2 Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
- Flood forecasting and warning
- Floodplain zoning
- Flood fighting
- Floodproofing
- Flood insurance.
7.What are Flash Floods
- Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed.
- Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time.
- They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
8. Status of Floods in India
8.1 NDRF Report
- 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
- On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.
8.2 Statistics
- Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
- 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.
9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?
- Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
- Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land.
- Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream.
- Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly.
- Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding.
- Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
- Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
- Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
- Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.
10. The impact of floods in India
11. Impact of flood on wildlife
12. Government actions regarding flood management
12.1.The National Flood Management Commission
- Launched in 1954
- Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
- To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
- It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
- It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
- It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.
12.4.National Water Policy, 2002
- It recommended
- Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
- Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
- More emphasis on non-structural measures.
- Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.
12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were
- Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
- In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
- Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
