• The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
• One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
• For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
• It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
• These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
• If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
• In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
• Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
• Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.

As April 13, 2024, approaches, it marks four decades since the audacious move by the Indian Army to pre-empt Pakistan and assert control over the glacier atop the Saltoro ridge, commanding a view over the Nubra valley in the Karakoram ranges. However, amidst the strategic manoeuvres and territorial claims, it is the relentless onslaught of extreme weather that emerges as the greatest adversary on the glacier. Tragically, around 1,150 soldiers have paid the ultimate price, with the majority succumbing to the unforgiving elements.

2. Siachen Glacier

• Siachen, derived from the Balti language, translates to “land of roses,” where ‘Sia’ denotes a local species of rose and ‘Chen’ signifies abundance. Yet, despite its floral namesake, it is renowned as the world’s highest and coldest battlefield.
• Situated at a pivotal junction with Pakistan to the left and China to the right, Siachen holds immense strategic significance.
• The genesis of the Siachen conflict traces back to the Partition between India and Pakistan.
• While the Line of Control (LoC) was delineated up to NJ-9842 as per the 1972 Simla Agreement, the glacier remained unmarked. India stakes its claim to the region based on the Jammu and Kashmir Accession Agreement of 1947 and the Karachi Agreement of 1949, which delineate the ceasefire line as extending “Northwards to the glaciers.”
• In contrast, Pakistan contends that it extends “North-Eastwards,” asserting ownership beyond the Saltoro Ridge and encompassing Siachen. This claim, if upheld, would grant Pakistan direct access to China and strategic oversight over the Ladakh region and the vital Leh-Srinagar highway, posing a significant threat to India’s territorial integrity.
• Thus, the Siachen Glacier stands as not only a frozen battleground but also a symbol of the enduring dispute between India and Pakistan, fraught with geopolitical implications.

4. Endurance on the Siachen Glacier

• Situated at altitudes of 18,000 feet and above, the Army posts on the Siachen Glacier, including the highest point at Bana post and the pinnacle at Indira Col, stand as stark symbols of human resilience. While Indian and Pakistani posts confront each other at heights between 18,000 and 19,000 feet, beyond 20,000 feet, the terrain belongs solely to India.
• Operations on the glacier epitomize a relentless trial of human endurance and expertise. This challenge was particularly daunting during the early stages of Operation Meghdoot, characterized by a scarcity of high-altitude clothing and equipment. Initially, Indian Air Force (IAF) operations relied heavily on helicopters and transport aircraft. However, the scenario evolved with the arrival of fighter aircraft. In September 1984, a detachment of Hunter aircraft from the No. 27 squadron commenced operations from the high-altitude airfield at Leh. Over the ensuing years, these Hunters executed more than 700 sorties, conducting fighter sweeps and simulated strikes to deter adversary actions. Subsequently, live armament sorties were conducted at the high-altitude firing range at Kar Tso, south of Leh, as per the IAF’s account.
• In 2009, the IAF introduced Cheetal helicopters onto the glacier. These modified Cheetah helicopters boasted re-engineered engines, offering enhanced reliability and load-carrying capabilities at high altitudes. This technological advancement further bolstered India’s operational capabilities in the challenging terrain of the Siachen Glacier.

5. Advancements on the Siachen Glacier

• Over the past four decades, significant strides have been made in technology, infrastructure, and logistical support on the Siachen Glacier, aimed at enhancing operational efficiency and safeguarding lives. Major improvements span habitat development, communication networks, mobility solutions, logistics management, medical support, and environmental sustainability.
• However, amidst these advancements, the glacier grapples with the profound impacts of climate change. In 2015, the snout, marking the starting point of the glacier at the base camp, receded by over a kilometre from its position in 1984.
• In recent years, officials have highlighted substantial enhancements, particularly in mobile and data connectivity. The introduction of VSAT technology has revolutionized communication, providing troops with data and internet connectivity, thus improving real-time situational awareness and telemedicine capabilities.
• Moreover, advancements in mobility, including the utilization of All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) and ATV bridges, alongside the induction of Chinook heavy-lift helicopters and logistic drones, have notably improved the supply chain to remote posts, ensuring essential provisions even during harsh winters. Enhanced logistics chains facilitate the delivery of fresh rations and vegetables, while specialized clothing, mountaineering equipment, and advanced rations bolster soldiers' resilience against extreme temperatures.
• The Indian Air Force (IAF) plays a pivotal role in supporting Operation Meghdoot, with a comprehensive fleet including Rafale, Su-30MKI, Apache, Chinook, and various other aircraft. Helicopters remain indispensable, serving as lifelines to remote posts, with IAF’s 114 helicopter unit and Army aviation units playing a crucial role.
• On the medical front, telemedicine nodes established by ISRO complement medical facilities in Partapur and Base Camp, boasting top-tier specialists, state-of-the-art equipment such as high altitude pulmonary oedema (HAPO) chambers, oxygen generation plants, and life support systems.
• These advancements underscore the relentless commitment to ensuring the well-being and operational readiness of personnel deployed in one of the world’s most challenging environments, the Siachen Glacier.

• Siachen, often regarded alongside Sir Creek as the "low-hanging fruits" of the India-Pakistan conflict, presents a complex and enduring challenge, particularly in the context of the broader Kashmir issue.
• Dialogues between India and Pakistan have addressed the Siachen conundrum at the level of Defence Secretaries. However, proposals for demilitarization have stumbled, with India insisting on authenticating the 110 km Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) as a precursor—a step Pakistan has rebuffed.
• In January 2020, then Army Chief Gen. Manoj Mukund Narvane underscored Siachen's strategic significance, highlighting it as the epicentre of potential collusive threats from China and Pakistan. Maintaining Indian control over this region was emphasized as paramount.
• Siachen's proximity to the Shaksgam Valley, part of Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK), adds another layer of complexity. The adjacent area, ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963, intertwines regional dynamics further. The 2020 standoff with China in Eastern Ladakh and ongoing tensions along the Line of Actual Control exacerbate the intricacies of resolving the Siachen issue.
• The notion of Siachen as a "low-hanging fruit" appears increasingly outdated. Evolving geopolitical dynamics and enduring territorial disputes render any resolution elusive, underscoring the formidable challenges inherent in addressing this frozen battleground.

HYDROCARBON

3. Hydrocarbon Extraction Techniques

 

To efficiently extract hydrocarbons from reservoirs while safeguarding their integrity, drilling and reservoir engineers employ a range of specialized methods.

• The initial step involves drilling a production well, strategically positioned to maximize drainage from the reservoir. Using drilling machines, engineers bore through the rock formations using a drill bit attached to a drill pipe. Drill collars provide weight and stability to the drilling process.
• As drilling progresses, steel casings slightly narrower than the borehole diameter are lowered into the well. Cement slurry is then pumped between the outer surface of the casings and the wellbore. Once solidified, this cement casing prevents cave-ins and the influx of surrounding fluids into the well.
• Drilling fluid, circulated through the drill string, serves multiple functions. It cools the drill bit, carries rock cuttings to the surface, and maintains wellbore stability. Careful pressure control is crucial to prevent hydrocarbons from surging into the wellbore uncontrollably.
• Mechanical valves known as blowout preventers are integrated into modern drilling setups to manage pressure and prevent uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons. These devices trap potential gushers within the wellbore, ensuring operational safety.
• The process of recording and analyzing rock cuttings by depth to assess their properties is termed mud-logging. This helps engineers evaluate reservoir characteristics and make informed decisions during drilling operations.
• As drilling progresses, the drill pipe length is extended by adding sections. Additionally, drill bits may be replaced as needed to maintain drilling efficiency.

Modern drilling rigs equipped with generators and batteries facilitate these processes. Offshore rigs incorporate additional features to enhance stability and facilitate extraction through water columns.