INFLATION
- It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
- In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
- Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.
3. How is Food Inflation measured in India?
Food inflation in India is measured using various indices and indicators. The primary indices used to measure food inflation in India include the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Both indices provide insights into the overall price movements of goods and services, including food items, but they differ in terms of their coverage and methodology.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- The CPI is a key indicator used by the Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to monitor inflation, including food inflation.
- The CPI measures the average change over time in the prices paid by urban and rural consumers for a basket of goods and services, including food items, housing, clothing, transportation, and more.
- Within the CPI, food and beverages form a significant component, and food inflation is specifically derived from the changes in food prices within the CPI basket.
- The CPI is released monthly by the Central Statistics Office (CSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
- The WPI is another important index that tracks price changes at the wholesale level for a selected group of commodities, including food products, manufactured goods, fuel, and more.
- The WPI measures price changes from the perspective of producers and wholesalers, providing insights into inflationary pressures in the production and distribution stages.
- Food articles, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, and edible oils, are included in the WPI basket for monitoring food inflation.
- The WPI is released weekly by the Office of Economic Adviser under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
In addition to these indices, other indicators such as the Food Sub-Index within the CPI and specific price indices for essential food items (like vegetables, pulses, and cereals) are also used to gauge food inflation more accurately. The RBI closely monitors food inflation trends as part of its monetary policy framework to make informed decisions regarding interest rates and economic stability. Overall, the combination of CPI, WPI, and specific food-related indices provides a comprehensive assessment of food inflation in India.
4. Headline and Core Inflation
Inflation is a key economic indicator that measures the rate at which prices of goods and services rise over time. In India, two important measures of inflation are headline inflation and core inflation.
- Headline Inflation: Headline inflation refers to the overall rate of inflation in an economy, taking into account the price changes across all goods and services included in the consumer basket. It reflects the broad-based movement in prices, including food, fuel, housing, transportation, and other essential and non-essential items. Headline inflation is typically measured using indices such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Fluctuations in headline inflation can be influenced by various factors, including changes in global commodity prices, government policies, supply chain disruptions, and demand-side pressures.
- Core Inflation: Core inflation, on the other hand, excludes volatile items such as food and energy from the basket of goods used to calculate inflation. By excluding these volatile components, core inflation provides a more stable measure of underlying inflationary trends in the economy. Core inflation is often considered a better gauge of long-term inflationary pressures and helps policymakers in making informed decisions regarding monetary policy. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), for example, closely monitors core inflation to assess the underlying inflationary trends and formulate appropriate monetary policy responses.
Understanding the distinction between headline and core inflation is essential for policymakers, businesses, and consumers alike. While headline inflation provides a comprehensive view of overall price movements, core inflation offers insights into the underlying inflationary pressures, helping to distinguish between temporary fluctuations and sustained inflation trends. By closely monitoring both measures of inflation, policymakers can effectively manage inflationary risks and maintain price stability, contributing to sustainable economic growth and stability.
5. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is a crucial institutional framework established by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to formulate and implement monetary policy decisions in India.
Role
- Formulating Monetary Policy: The primary role of the MPC is to formulate and implement monetary policy in India. This includes setting the key policy interest rates, such as the repo rate, reverse repo rate, and marginal standing facility (MSF) rate, to achieve the objectives of price stability and economic growth.
- Targeting Inflation: The MPC's main objective is to maintain price stability, which is primarily achieved by targeting a specific inflation rate. In India, the RBI has adopted a flexible inflation targeting framework, where the MPC aims to keep the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation within a specified target range over the medium term. Currently, the inflation target is set at 4% with a tolerance band of +/- 2%.
- Evaluating Economic Conditions: The MPC assesses various economic indicators, such as GDP growth, inflation expectations, fiscal policy measures, global economic developments, and financial market conditions, to make informed decisions about monetary policy.
- Communication: The MPC communicates its monetary policy decisions, rationale, and outlook for the economy through periodic press releases, statements, and the publication of meeting minutes. This transparency enhances predictability and credibility in monetary policy.
Composition
- Members: The MPC consists of six members, including three members nominated by the Government of India and three members from the Reserve Bank of India. The Governor of the RBI serves as the ex-officio Chairperson of the MPC.
- Appointment: The members of the MPC are appointed by the Central Government based on their expertise and experience in economics, banking, finance, or related fields. The RBI Governor and Deputy Governor (in charge of monetary policy) are automatic members of the MPC.
- Voting Rights: Each member of the MPC, including the RBI Governor, has one vote in the decision-making process. Decisions are made by a majority vote, with the Governor having the casting vote in case of a tie.
- Terms: Members of the MPC serve fixed terms, typically for four years, with eligibility for reappointment. This ensures continuity and stability in monetary policy formulation.
6. The Way Forward
By implementing the measures and fostering collaborative efforts among policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders, India can effectively manage inflationary pressures, maintain price stability, and promote sustainable economic growth and development.
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For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words)
2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4
3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall.
(b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks.
(c) Central bank is following an easy money policy.
(d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.
4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates.
2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 3 only D. 2 and 3 only 5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.
Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis.
With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021)
1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices.
2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B
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UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
- Underlining that the Uniform Civil Code is “neither necessary nor desirable at this stage”, the 21st Law Commission of India, in 2018, argued for reform of family laws of every religion through amendments and codification of certain aspects so as to make them gender-just
- In its ‘Consultation Paper on Family Law Reforms’, the Law Commission took a stand in favour of “equality ‘within communities’ between men and women” (personal law reform), “rather than ‘equality between’ communities” (UCC)
- According to the 22nd Law Commission Cultural diversity cannot be compromised to the extent that our urge for uniformity itself becomes a reason for threat to the territorial integrity of the nation
- women must be guaranteed their freedom of faith without any compromise on their right to equality
- A UCC would provide for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities, in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc
- Currently, Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws
- Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs, Jains and Buddhist, Muslims, Christians, and followers of other religions
- Moreover, there is diversity even within communities. All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians
- For instance, in the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws
- The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram. Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices
- The exception to this rule is the state of Goa, where all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption
- Article 44 of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for citizens throughout the territory of India
- Article 44 is among the Directive Principles of State Policy. Directive Principles are not enforceable by court, but are supposed to inform and guide governance
- However, in some senses, Article 44 is unique in this manner. While Article 44 uses the words “state shall endeavour”, other Articles in the ‘Directive Principles’ chapter use words such as “in particular strive”; “shall in particular direct its policy”; “shall be obligation of the state
- The phrase “by suitable legislation” is absent in Article 44. All this implies that the duty of the state is greater in other directive principles than in Article 44
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For Prelims: Unifrom Civil Code (UCC), DPSP, Fundamental rights, Law Commission
For Mains: 1. What is the Uniform Civil Code? What are the challenges in implementing a Uniform Civil Code in a diverse country like India?
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PREVENTION OF MONEY LAUNDERING ACT (PMLA)
1. Context
2. Money laundering
- Money laundering is the illegal process of making large amounts of money.
- This money is generated by criminal activity but may appear to come from a legitimate source.
- Criminal activities include drug trafficking, terrorist funding, illegal arms sales, smuggling, prostitution rings, insider trading, bribery and computer fraud schemes that produce large profits.
2.1. Different stages in money laundering
- Placement: The crime money is injected into the formal financial system.
- Layering: Money injected into the system is layered and spread over various transactions and book-keeping tricks to hide the source of origin.
- Integration: Laundered money is withdrawn from the legitimate account to be used for criminal purposes. Now, Money enters the financial system in such a way that the original association with the crime is disassociated. The money now can be used by the offender as legitimate money.
2.2. Impact of Money Laundering on Economic Development
Money laundering can have a significant impact on economic development by:
- When money laundering occurs, it can undermine public confidence in banks and other financial institutions. This can lead to increased risk aversion and a decline in investment, which can hamper economic growth.
- Money laundering can distort economic activity by directing funds away from legitimate businesses and into criminal enterprises. This can lead to inefficient allocation of resources and slower economic growth.
- Money laundering can facilitate corruption by providing a means to conceal the proceeds of corrupt activities. This can weaken governance and undermine the rule of law, further hindering economic development.
- Money laundering can also lead to a loss of tax revenue, as criminals seek to evade taxes on their illicit gains. This can deprive governments of much-needed funds for essential services, such as education and healthcare.
- Money laundering is often used to finance organized crime groups, which can lead to an increase in violence and instability.
- Money laundering can also be used to finance terrorist activities, posing a serious threat to international security.
- Money laundering can also have a direct impact on individuals and businesses, who may lose money or be victims of fraud as a result of this crime.
3. Prevention of Money-Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA)
The Prevention of Money-Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) is a comprehensive legislation enacted by the Indian Parliament to combat money laundering and other financial crimes. It aims to prevent the use of proceeds of crime, particularly those derived from drug trafficking, organized crime and corruption, from being laundered and utilized to finance further criminal activities or to gain legitimacy.
3.1. Key Features of the PMLA
- The PMLA prohibits the process of money laundering, defined as the act of concealing or disguising the proceeds of crime.
- The PMLA empowers the Enforcement Directorate (ED), the designated agency for investigating money laundering cases, to attach and seize property derived from or involved in money laundering.
- The PMLA provides for the confiscation of property that is involved in money laundering, even if it is not in the possession of the accused person.
- The PMLA grants the ED extensive powers to conduct searches, make arrests, and detain individuals suspected of money laundering.
- The PMLA facilitates international cooperation in combating money laundering through mutual legal assistance treaties and other mechanisms.
3.2. Significance of the PMLA
The PMLA has played a crucial role in strengthening India's anti-money laundering framework and enhancing its global standing in combating financial crimes. It has enabled the investigation and prosecution of numerous money laundering cases, leading to the recovery of substantial illicit funds.
3.3. Challenges in Implementing the PMLA
Despite its significance, the implementation of the PMLA has faced certain challenges, including:
- The PMLA and other laws, such as the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, have overlapping jurisdictions, which can lead to confusion and delays in investigations.
- There have been concerns about the lack of adequate safeguards against arbitrary actions and misuse of power under the PMLA.
- The ED faces resource constraints in terms of manpower and infrastructure, which can hamper its ability to effectively investigate and prosecute money laundering cases.
- The Directorate of Enforcement (ED) is an agency in India that primarily deals with the enforcement of economic laws and regulations to combat money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and financial fraud.
- The ED is part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
- The Directorate of Enforcement was established on 1st May 1956, as the "Enforcement Unit" within the Department of Economic Affairs.
- Its primary focus was on preventing and detecting violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947.
- Over the years, the agency's role expanded, and in 1999, the Enforcement Directorate was established as a separate entity under the Ministry of Finance.
- The enactment of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) in 2002 further broadened its jurisdiction, giving it the power to investigate cases related to money laundering.
- Since its establishment, the ED has played a crucial role in combating economic offences and ensuring compliance with economic laws in India.
- It has been involved in several high-profile cases, including those related to financial scams, money laundering by influential individuals, and cross-border financial crimes.
- The ED collaborates with various domestic and international agencies, including financial intelligence units, law enforcement agencies, and Interpol, to gather information, share intelligence, and effectively coordinate efforts to combat economic offences.
4.1. Functions and Roles of ED
- Enforcing Economic Laws: The primary function of the ED is to enforce two key economic laws in India: the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA). It ensures compliance with these laws and investigates money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and economic fraud cases.
- Money Laundering Investigations: The ED investigates cases involving money laundering, which is the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money to make it appear legitimate. It identifies and seizes properties and assets derived from illicit activities and prevents their further use.
- Foreign Exchange Violations: The ED is responsible for investigating cases related to violations of foreign exchange laws and regulations. It monitors and controls foreign exchange transactions to maintain the stability of the Indian rupee and prevent illegal activities such as smuggling and illegal money transfers.
- Financial Frauds: The ED also investigates and takes action against financial frauds, including bank frauds, Ponzi schemes, and other fraudulent activities affecting the Indian financial system. It works closely with other law enforcement agencies, such as the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), to tackle complex financial crimes.
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For Prelims: Prevention of Money Laundering Act, ED, CBI, Foreign Exchange Management Act,
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) in its effectiveness in combating money laundering in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following is not correct in respect of Directorate of Enforcement? (CDS 2021)
A. It is a specialized financial investigation agency under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance.
B. It enforces the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999.
C. It enforces the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002.
D. It enforces the Prohibition of Benami Property Transaction Act, 1988.
2. The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 become effective since which one of the following dates? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2012)
A. July 2002 B. August 2003 C. July 2004 D. July 2005
3. FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) was finally implemented in the year (UPPSC 2013)
A. 1991 B. 1997 C. 2000 D. 2007
4. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act was replaced by the ______ in India. (SSC Steno 2020)
A. Foreign Exchange Currency Act
B. Foreign Exchange Finances Act
C. Foreign Exchange Funds Act
D. Foreign Exchange Management Act
5. "Central Bureau of Intelligence and Investigation" is listed in the __________ list given in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2017)
A. Union B. State C. Global D. Concurrent
Answers: 1-D, 2-D, 3-C, 4-D, 5-A
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INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES
Invasive alien species (IAS), also known simply as invasive species, are non-native organisms that, when introduced to a new environment, can cause harm to the native ecosystem, economy, or human health. These species often thrive in their new environment due to the absence of natural predators or competitors, leading to rapid population growth and ecological disruption.
The key points about invasive alien species
Invasive species can be introduced intentionally or accidentally by humans. Intentional introductions often occur for agricultural, horticultural, or ornamental purposes, while accidental introductions can happen through global trade, transport, or tourism.
- Invasive species can outcompete native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat, leading to declines in native populations. They may also alter ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling and fire regimes, leading to long-term ecological changes.
- Invasive species can have significant economic impacts by damaging crops, forests, fisheries, and infrastructure. Control and management efforts to mitigate these impacts can be costly and time-consuming.
- Some invasive species can pose direct threats to human health by transmitting diseases or causing allergic reactions. For example, certain invasive plants may produce pollen that triggers allergies in sensitive individuals.
- The rise of global trade and travel has facilitated the spread of invasive species, leading to an increase in their prevalence and distribution worldwide. Climate change may also exacerbate the problem by creating new habitats suitable for invasive species.
- Efforts to manage and control invasive species include prevention, early detection and rapid response, eradication, and long-term control measures. These efforts often require collaboration between government agencies, researchers, conservation organisations, and the public.
Invasive alien species (IAS) can impact native species in various ways, often leading to significant ecological disruption.
The primary ways in which IAS affect native species
- Invasive species can compete with native species for essential resources such as food, water, space, and sunlight. They may have competitive advantages, such as rapid reproduction rates or lack of natural predators, which allow them to outcompete native species for resources.
- Invasive species may prey on or consume native species, leading to declines in native populations. For example, invasive predators can decimate native prey populations, while invasive herbivores can overgraze native vegetation, altering habitat structure and reducing food availability for native species.
- Invasive species can modify habitats through activities such as burrowing, nesting, or altering vegetation composition. These habitat alterations can disrupt native species' ability to find suitable nesting sites, forage for food, or carry out other essential behaviours.
- Some invasive species can introduce new diseases or parasites to native populations, which may lack immunity to these pathogens. This can lead to disease outbreaks and population declines in native species. For example, the chytrid fungus, introduced by the global amphibian trade, has caused widespread declines and extinctions among native amphibian species.
- Hybridization between invasive and native species can occur when they come into contact. This can lead to genetic introgression, where genes from the invasive species are incorporated into native populations, potentially altering their genetic diversity and fitness.
- Invasive species can disrupt ecological relationships and food webs by altering species interactions. For example, if an invasive species outcompetes a native species for a shared prey species, it can indirectly impact other species that rely on that prey for food.
4. About the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty aimed at conserving biodiversity, promoting sustainable use of biological resources, and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from genetic resources. It was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, and entered into force on December 29, 1993. The CBD has three main objectives:
- The CBD aims to conserve biological diversity, including ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity, through the establishment and management of protected areas, the conservation of threatened species, and the restoration of degraded ecosystems.
- The CBD promotes the sustainable use of biological resources to meet current and future human needs while ensuring the long-term health and resilience of ecosystems. This includes activities such as sustainable forestry, fisheries management, and sustainable agriculture practices.
- The CBD seeks to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from the utilization of genetic resources, including the sharing of monetary and non-monetary benefits with countries and communities that are the custodians of those resources.
The CBD operates through meetings of the Conference of the Parties (COP), which are held regularly to review progress, negotiate agreements, and make decisions on matters related to the implementation of the convention. The COP has adopted several protocols and agreements to further the objectives of the CBD, including the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing.
5. What are invasive species?
Invasive species are organisms that are introduced, either intentionally or unintentionally, into a new environment where they are not native. These introduced species can cause harm to the environment, economy, or even human health.
Here's a breakdown of what makes a species invasive:
- Non-native: They come from a different region and weren't originally part of the local ecosystem.
- Harmful: They cause ecological or economic damage in their new environment. This can include things like outcompeting native species for resources, preying on them, or introducing diseases.
Not all introduced species become invasive. Some introduced species can even be beneficial, like honeybees which are crucial for pollinating crops. However, invasive species become problematic because they lack the natural controls (predators, diseases) they faced in their original habitat. This allows them to reproduce rapidly and disrupt the balance of the new ecosystem.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 serves as a legal framework aimed at safeguarding various species of wild animals and plants, managing their habitats, and regulating and controlling trade in wildlife and wildlife products. It plays a crucial role in conservation efforts and biodiversity preservation in India.
Key Provisions
- The Act categorizes species into different schedules based on their conservation status, providing varying degrees of protection and monitoring by the government.
- India's accession to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was facilitated by the Wildlife Act.
- The Act now extends to Jammu and Kashmir following the reorganisation act.
Constitutional Framework
- The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, transferred Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and Birds from the State to the Concurrent List.
- Article 51 A (g) mandates citizens to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests and wildlife.
- Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State Policy emphasizes the state's duty to protect and improve the environment, safeguarding forests, and wildlife.
Schedules under the Act
- Schedule I: Encompasses endangered species requiring stringent protection, with severe penalties for violations. Hunting is prohibited except in cases of threat to human life or incurable disease.
- Schedule II: Includes species accorded high protection with trade prohibition.
- Schedule III & IV: Lists non-endangered species with hunting prohibition, but with lesser penalties compared to Schedules I and II.
- Schedule V: Contains vermin species that can be hunted, including Common Crows, Fruit Bats, Rats, and Mice.
- Schedule VI: Regulates the cultivation and trade of specified plants, requiring prior permission for cultivation, possession, sale, and transportation.
Examples of Protected Species
- Schedule I: Black Buck, Snow Leopard, Himalayan Bear, Asiatic Cheetah.
- Schedule II: Assamese Macaque, Himalayan Black Bear, Indian Cobra.
- Schedule III & IV: Chital (spotted deer), Bharal (blue sheep), Hyena, Sambhar (deer).
- Schedule V: Common Crows, Fruit Bats, Rats, Mice.
- Schedule VI: Beddomes’ cycad, Blue Vanda, Red Vanda, Kuth, Slipper orchids, Pitcher plant.
8. What is IPBES?
The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an independent intergovernmental body established to assess the state of biodiversity, ecosystems, and the contributions they provide to human well-being. IPBES was established in 2012 and is headquartered in Bonn, Germany.
Key functions and objectives of IPBES include
- IPBES conducts regular assessments of the state of biodiversity and ecosystem services at the global, regional, and national levels. These assessments involve synthesizing scientific knowledge from experts around the world and providing policymakers with information to support decision-making.
- IPBES provides policymakers with evidence-based assessments, tools, and policy recommendations to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems. This includes identifying policy options and best practices for addressing the drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation.
- IPBES supports capacity-building efforts to enhance the ability of countries and stakeholders to assess, manage, and conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services effectively. This includes providing training, technical support, and guidance on assessment methodologies and tools.
- IPBES facilitates knowledge exchange and collaboration among scientists, policymakers, practitioners, indigenous and local communities, and other stakeholders involved in biodiversity and ecosystem management. This includes organizing workshops, conferences, and other events to share information and best practices.
- IPBES promotes policy-relevant research on biodiversity and ecosystem services to address knowledge gaps and support informed decision-making. This includes identifying research priorities and coordinating research efforts across disciplines and sectors.
IPBES operates through a multistakeholder governance structure involving governments, scientists, indigenous and local communities, non-governmental organisations, and other stakeholders. It conducts its work through a series of plenary sessions, expert groups, and technical support units focused on specific thematic areas and regions.
9. The Way Forward
By taking a proactive and collaborative approach to managing invasive species like chital on Ross Island, it's possible to mitigate their negative impacts on native biodiversity and ecosystems while promoting sustainable conservation practices.
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For Prelims: Ross Island, Invasive Alien Species, Wild Life Protection Act, IPBES, Convention on Biological Diversity, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island, Spotted deer
For Mains:
1. The growing problem of invasive alien species poses a significant threat to global biodiversity and ecosystem health. Discuss the various factors contributing to the spread of Invasive alien species and critically evaluate different approaches for their control and management. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. If a particular plant species is placed under Schedule VI of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, what is the implication? (UPSC 2020) (a) A licence is required to cultivate that plant.
2. Ross Island in the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands has been recently renamed as? (CMAT 2021) A. Shaheed dweep B. Swaraj dweep C. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Island D. Atal Island 3. Which of the following pairs of old names and new names of islands in India is/are correctly matched? (NDA 2019) 1. Ross Island : Shaheed Dweep
2. Neil Island : Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Dweep
3. Havelock Island : Swaraj Dweep
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 3 only
4. 'Invasive Species Specialist Group' (that develops Global Invasive Species Database) belongs to which one of the following organizations? (UPSC 2023) A. The International Union for Conservation of Nature
B. The United Nations Environment Programme
C. The United Nations World Commission for Environment and Development
D. The World Wide Fund for Nature
5. With reference to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2015) 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES is an international agreement between governments.
2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural environments.
3. CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this Convention does not take the place of national laws.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
6. Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat? (UPSC 2020) 1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Manas National Park
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 and 4 only D. 1 and 4 only Answers: 1-A, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-B, 6-A |
Source: The Indian Express
SULTHAN BATHERY
Sulthan Bathery is a town located in the Wayanad district of Kerala, India. It's known for its historical significance and natural beauty. The town got its name from the historic fort built by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, during the 18th century. The fort served as a strategic military outpost during Tipu Sultan's reign.
Today, Sulthan Bathery is a bustling town surrounded by lush greenery and tea estates, making it a popular tourist destination. Visitors come to explore the historical sites, including the Sultan Bathery Jain Temple, which has intricate carvings and is believed to date back to the 13th century.
The town also serves as a gateway to the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, home to diverse flora and fauna, including elephants, tigers, and various species of birds. Sulthan Bathery is also known for its spice plantations, where visitors can take guided tours to learn about the cultivation of spices like pepper, cardamom, and cinnamon
3.Tipu Sultan and Hyder Ali
- Tipu Sultan and Hyder Ali were prominent figures in South Indian history, particularly known for their roles in the Kingdom of Mysore, which encompassed parts of present-day Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh. Here's an overview of each:
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Hyder Ali: Hyder Ali was born in 1720 in present-day Karnataka, India. He started his career as a soldier and eventually rose to power in the Mysore region. Through his military prowess and diplomatic skills, he became the de facto ruler of Mysore by 1761. Hyder Ali implemented various administrative and military reforms, strengthening the Mysorean state.
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Tipu Sultan: Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the eldest son of Hyder Ali, born in 1750. He succeeded his father as the ruler of Mysore upon Hyder Ali's death in 1782. Tipu Sultan continued his father's policies, focusing on military modernization and expansion. He engaged in several wars against the British East India Company, most notably in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
- Both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan are remembered for their efforts to resist British expansionism in South India. They employed innovative military tactics and diplomatic maneuvers to defend Mysore against British encroachment. However, their confrontations with the British ultimately led to the downfall of the Kingdom of Mysore
- Tipu Sultan, in particular, is a controversial figure in Indian history. While he is celebrated as a patriot and a symbol of resistance against colonialism in some quarters, others criticize his methods, such as the forced conversion of Hindus and the destruction of temples in regions he conquered
- Tipu Sultan, originally named Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu, was born on November 10, 1750, in Devanahalli, which is now part of Bangalore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, who had risen through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the ruling Hindu dynasty of Mysore at the time. Hyder Ali assumed power in 1761, and upon his death in 1782, Tipu succeeded him.
- During a conflict with the British in 1767, Tipu had his first exposure to European culture and lifestyle, which intrigued him. This interest influenced his governance of Mysore, as he implemented various policies and reforms aimed at modernizing the princely state, leaving a lasting impact on his legacy.
- Hyder Ali passed away in 1782 during a period of territorial expansion. Consequently, Tipu inherited the throne amidst challenges, focusing primarily on consolidating the territories inherited from his father.
- In the preceding two decades, the Kingdom of Mysore had gradually expanded by annexing disputed regions along its borders. Tipu inherited rebellious provinces in Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, which were vital to Mysore's strategic and economic interests. His rule in these areas is often cited as evidence of his intolerance and authoritarianism.
- The military of the Mysuru kingdom utilized Ganapathyvattam as a storage site for their ammunition, leading to the town being referred to as 'Sultan's Battery' in British records.
- Tipu Sultan met his demise defending his fortress of Srirangapatna against British forces during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. Despite being vastly outnumbered and lacking support from his French allies, he fought valiantly until the end
The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of conflicts fought between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India during the 18th and 19th centuries. These wars were primarily driven by territorial expansion, trade interests, and the strategic control of South India.
Here's an overview of the major Anglo-Mysore Wars:
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First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769): This conflict was sparked by the expansionist policies of Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore. The British, concerned about Mysorean dominance in the region, allied with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad against Hyder Ali. The war ended inconclusively with the Treaty of Madras in 1769, which restored the status quo ante bellum.
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Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784): Hyder Ali's son, Tipu Sultan, succeeded him as the ruler of Mysore and continued his father's policies. This war began when Tipu Sultan attacked British-occupied territories in southern India. Despite initial successes by Tipu Sultan, the British, under the leadership of Governor-General Warren Hastings and later Cornwallis, managed to gain the upper hand. The war concluded with the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, which restored the status quo, albeit with some territorial adjustments.
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Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-1792): This war was triggered by Tipu Sultan's refusal to comply with the Treaty of Mangalore and his attempts to forge alliances with France and other regional powers. The British, led by Governor-General Lord Cornwallis, launched a concerted campaign against Mysore. Tipu Sultan's forces were defeated, and he was forced to cede significant territories and pay a large indemnity under the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792.
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Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-1799): The immediate cause of this war was Tipu Sultan's refusal to align with the British against the French during the Napoleonic Wars. The British, under Governor-General Richard Wellesley, launched a major offensive against Mysore. Tipu Sultan's forces were decisively defeated, and he was killed during the Siege of Srirangapatna in 1799. The war resulted in the complete annexation of Mysore by the British East India Company
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Ganapathyvattam
Ganapathyvattam is a location associated with the historical context of the Anglo-Mysore Wars. It served as a battery or storage site for ammunition utilized by the military forces of the Kingdom of Mysore during the conflicts with the British East India Company. Over time, the town became known as "Sultan's Battery" in British records due to its association with Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore during the late 18th century. This site holds significance within the narrative of military history and colonial encounters in South India
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For Prelims: History of India
For Mains: Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present – significant events, personalities, issues
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VOLCANIC VORTEX RINGS
In recent days, Mount Etna, Europe's largest volcano and one of the world's most active and iconic volcanic peaks, has been emitting nearly perfect rings of smoke into the atmosphere. These rings, known as volcanic vortex rings, are a rare phenomenon that scientists liken to the smoke rings created by some cigarette smokers.
Volcanic vortex rings occur when certain conditions align during volcanic activity, leading to the formation of circular smoke patterns resembling rings. Mount Etna's recent display of this phenomenon is noteworthy due to the rarity of such occurrences and the volcano's reputation for unique and dynamic volcanic activity.
2. About Mount Etna
Situated on the eastern coast of Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, Mount Etna, or simply Etna, stands as one of Italy's most prominent natural landmarks. Its towering peak marks the highest point in Italy south of the Alps, earning it the distinction of being Europe's largest and one of its most active volcanoes.
Geological Features and Activity
- At its summit, Mount Etna boasts five craters, which are the primary sources of its volcanic eruptions. Additionally, over 300 vents of varying sizes pepper the slopes of the mountain, contributing to its frequent activity. Since the year 1600, Mount Etna has experienced approximately 60 flank eruptions, along with numerous summit eruptions.
- The volcano's eruptive history spans back hundreds of thousands of years, with UNESCO tracing its origins over 500,000 years ago. Documented records of its activity extend at least 2,700 years, highlighting its enduring presence and significance in geological and cultural contexts.
- In recent decades, Mount Etna has maintained a near-constant state of activity, with notable eruptions occurring in 2006, 2007-08, 2012 (twice), 2018, and 2021 at its summit. Flank eruptions have also occurred in 2001, 2002-03, 2004-05, and 2008-09. Recognizing its geological importance and cultural value, Mount Etna was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013.
- Volcanic vortex rings are mesmerizing natural phenomena that occur during volcanic activity when gas, predominantly water vapour, is rapidly released through a vent in the crater of a volcano. The unique circular shape of these rings is a result of the nearly perfect circularity of the vent from which they emerge.
- The earliest recorded observations of volcanic vortex rings date back to 1724 when they were first noted at Mount Etna and Vesuvius in Italy. These observations were further documented in an engraved plate from 1755, highlighting the long-standing presence of this phenomenon in volcanic activity.
- While volcanic vortex rings were initially observed at Etna and Vesuvius, they have since been documented at numerous volcanoes worldwide. Recent observations include occurrences at Redoubt in Alaska, Tungurahua in Ecuador, Pacaya in Guatemala, Eyjafjallajökull and Hekla in Iceland, Stromboli in Italy, Aso and Sakurajima in Japan, Yasur in Vanuatu, Whakaari in New Zealand, and Momotombo in Nicaragua.
- Similar to how dolphins create bubble rings underwater, volcanic vortex rings are formed when gas is expelled from the vent with enough force to create a circular pattern. These rings can linger in the air for up to 10 minutes under stable atmospheric conditions. However, they are susceptible to disintegration in windy or turbulent conditions.
- The study of volcanic vortex rings offers valuable insights into the dynamics of volcanic activity and contributes to our understanding of natural processes occurring within volcanic systems.
Mount Etna has garnered renown for its remarkable ability to generate volcanic vortex rings, making it a focal point for scientific observation and study of this captivating phenomenon.
- A "dozens of gas rings every day" above Mount Etna in volcanic activity, asserted that "no volcano on Earth produces as many vapour rings as Etna," emphasizing the prolific nature of this occurrence.
- The rings are produced by the explosive release of gas bubbles within a narrow conduit, propelling the gas at high velocity towards the surface. As the gas travels along the conduit, friction against the walls slows its movement, resulting in the formation of the characteristic vortex rings.
- Contrary to common belief, volcanic vortex rings are not as rare as often perceived, with Mount Etna standing out as a particularly prolific producer of these phenomena. The significance of Etna in the consistent generation of volcanic vortex rings.
- In April 2024, a notable increase in volcanic activity, with a small vent opening on the northeastern edge of the Southeast Crater of Mount Etna. This vent began producing a substantial number of steam rings, with estimated hundreds, if not thousands, of rings being emitted since the phenomenon began.
- Mount Etna's extraordinary capacity to produce volcanic vortex rings continues to intrigue scientists and enthusiasts alike, offering valuable insights into the dynamic processes occurring within this iconic volcanic system.
Speculation regarding Mount Etna's recent activity and the possibility of an imminent spectacular eruption has been addressed by experts, dispelling notions of an impending major event.
- In response to inquiries about the significance of the recent activity, volcanologists provided clarification, emphasizing that the current activity does not indicate an imminent spectacular eruption. The activity from the new vent was observed to be slowing down, indicating a decrease in intensity.
- The cessation of activity can occur due to various factors, such as changes in the properties of the conduit. Potential obstructions within the conduit may alter its dynamics, affecting the conditions necessary for the formation of volcanic vortex rings.
- Addressing concerns about the interpretation of recent activity, experts aim to manage expectations and provide accurate assessments of volcanic phenomena. While the occurrence of volcanic vortex rings may capture attention, it does not necessarily signify imminent volcanic eruptions of significant magnitude.
- As Mount Etna's activity evolves, ongoing monitoring by experts remains crucial in assessing any potential changes and understanding the underlying processes driving volcanic phenomena. Through careful observation and analysis, scientists aim to provide reliable insights into the behaviour of this dynamic volcanic system.
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For Prelims: Mount Etna, Volcanic Vortex Rings
For Mains:
1. Explain the formation of volcanic vortex rings and the factors influencing their occurrence. How can the study of these rings contribute to our understanding of volcanic activity? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Mount Etna, considered to be the most active volcano of Europe, is located in (UPSSSC Lower PCS Prelims 2019) (KSP Civil SI 2020)
A. Portugal B. Spain C. Greece D. Italy
2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 3 only D. 1 and 3
3. Consider the following statements: (OSSSC Junior Assistant 2018) 1. The majority of the world’s volcanoes are situated in the ‘Ring of Fire’.
2. The 'Ring of Fire' is situated only in the North Pacific Ocean.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answers: 1-D, 2-A, 3- A Mains 1. Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on regional environment. (UPSC 2021) |
INDIA'S FIRST LOK SABHA ELECTIONS
- After India gained independence in 1947, the Constituent Assembly of India drafted the Constitution, which was adopted on January 26, 1950. The Constitution provided for a parliamentary form of government with a bicameral legislature at the center, consisting of the President and two Houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
- The Election Commission of India was established in 1950 to oversee the conduct of elections in the country. The first Chief Election Commissioner was Sukumar Sen
- The first Lok Sabha elections were significant as they were the first general elections held under universal adult franchise. All adult citizens, regardless of gender, caste, religion, or socioeconomic status, were granted the right to vote
- The 1952 elections saw the participation of multiple political parties representing diverse ideologies and interests. The Indian National Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, emerged as the dominant party and secured a majority of seats in the Lok Sabha
- Alongside the Congress, various regional and national parties, as well as independent candidates, contested the elections. Some of the prominent parties included the Communist Party of India (CPI), the Socialist Party, and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)
- The first Lok Sabha elections witnessed enthusiastic participation from voters across the country. Voter turnout was relatively high, reflecting the eagerness of the Indian populace to exercise their democratic rights
- After the elections, Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India, leading the Congress party's government. The elected members of the Lok Sabha convened to form the government and carry out legislative functions as per the provisions of the Constitution
- The first election had 1,874 Lok Sabha candidates and 15,361 state Assembly candidates. Kottayam (Travancore-Cochin), Alleppey (Travancore-Cochin), and Gudivada (Madras) saw the highest voter turnouts of 80.5%, 78.1%, and 77.9% respectively.
- The first Lok Sabha also had multiple-member constituencies, a practice that was done away with in the elections of 1962
- The Government of India Act, 1935, was a major piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament to reform the governance of India. It introduced provincial autonomy and allowed for the establishment of elected provincial legislatures
- The Indian National Congress (INC) emerged as the dominant political force in the 1937 elections. Led by leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Congress won a majority of seats in several provinces, including Madras, Bombay, Bihar, United Provinces, Central Provinces, and Orissa
- The All-India Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, did not perform well in the 1937 elections. It faced a significant setback as it failed to win a majority of seats in any of the provinces, highlighting the early signs of the growing political divide between the Congress and the League
- Besides the Congress and the Muslim League, various regional parties and independent candidates also contested the elections. Some regional parties managed to win seats in their respective provinces, contributing to the diversity of representation in the provincial legislatures
- Following the elections, Congress formed governments in several provinces where it had won the majority of seats. These Congress ministries implemented various socio-economic reforms, including land reforms, expansion of education, and the promotion of civil liberties
- The success of the Congress in the 1937 elections gave a significant boost to India's freedom movement. It demonstrated the widespread popular support for the Congress and its agenda of self-rule and paved the way for increased political participation by Indians in the governance of their country
Multiple-member constituencies refer to electoral districts or constituencies in which voters elect more than one representative to a legislative body, such as a parliament or a local council. In contrast to single-member constituencies, where each district elects only one representative, multiple-member constituencies allow for the election of multiple representatives from the same geographical area.
There are several ways in which multiple-member constituencies can be structured:
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Block Voting: In block voting, voters have as many votes as there are seats to be filled in their constituency. They can distribute their votes among the candidates however they choose, including giving all their votes to a single candidate or splitting them among multiple candidates.
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Limited Voting: Limited voting allows voters to cast a limited number of votes, usually fewer than the total number of seats available in the constituency. For example, in a constituency electing three representatives, voters may be allowed to vote for only two candidates.
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Cumulative Voting: Cumulative voting gives voters multiple votes that they can allocate to one or more candidates. For example, if a constituency is electing three representatives, each voter might have three votes to distribute among the candidates as they see fit.
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Party-list Proportional Representation: In party-list proportional representation systems, political parties present lists of candidates, and voters vote for a party rather than individual candidates. Seats are then allocated to parties based on the proportion of votes they receive, and candidates from each party are elected in the order in which they appear on the party's list
- Adult franchise, also known as universal suffrage or adult suffrage, is a principle of democratic governance that grants the right to vote to all adult citizens of a country, regardless of factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or socioeconomic status. Under the concept of adult franchise, every adult citizen, typically defined as someone above a certain age threshold, has the right to participate in the electoral process by casting their vote in elections for public offices.
- The principle of adult franchise is fundamental to democratic societies as it ensures that the government derives its authority from the consent of the governed. By granting all adult citizens the right to vote, regardless of their background or circumstances, adult franchise promotes equality, inclusivity, and political participation.
- Adult franchise contrasts with earlier systems of suffrage, such as property-based or literacy-based qualifications, which restricted voting rights to a privileged few. Over time, the extension of adult franchise has been a key aspect of democratic reform movements, leading to the expansion of voting rights to previously marginalized groups, including women, racial minorities, and economically disadvantaged individuals.
- The adoption of adult franchise has been a significant milestone in the advancement of democracy around the world, contributing to the establishment of representative governments that reflect the will of the entire population. It remains a cornerstone of democratic governance, ensuring that governments are accountable to the people they serve and that citizens have a voice in shaping the policies and decisions that affect their lives
- Few countries had universal adult franchise at the time — the US, for instance, granted all its adult citizens the right to vote only in 1965
- The 1920 elections marked the commencement of direct elections in India, signifying a departure from the previous colonial practice of appointing a select few educated Indians to the legislature to gauge public sentiment.
- However, growing public demand for increased Indian representation in legislatures necessitated a shift in approach.
- In response, colonial administrators in 1909 expanded the number of Indian members through limited elections, albeit amid controversy, particularly regarding the establishment of separate electorates for Muslims.
- The Montagu-Chelmsford report of 1918, which assessed Indian Constitutional Reforms, identified the inadequacies of the 1909 electoral process.
- It noted the absence of broad-based electorates, with most being tailored to represent specific classes or interests and comprising only a small number of individuals.
- Even those representing Muslims were meant to be inclusive but were limited to a few hundred electors.
- This report recommended the establishment of a national legislature with two Houses, one of which would consist of directly elected members.
- It also proposed the creation of state-level legislatures with elected representatives. These recommendations were accepted by the British Parliament, leading to the passage of the Government of India Act, 1919.
- Consequently, the need for a comprehensive electoral law arose, as lawmakers would now be elected by the people. Thus, an electoral framework was required to conduct the first large-scale elections in the country
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For Prelims: History of India and Indian National Movement
For Mains: GS I: The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from different parts of the country. Post-independence consolidation and reorganisation within the country
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements : (UPSC CSE 2021)
1. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 recommended granting voting rights to all women above the age of 21.
2. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave women reserved seats in the legislature.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer (B)
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