UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (UNHRC)
The Human Rights Council (HRC) is a body within the United Nations (UN) system responsible for promoting and protecting human rights around the world. It was established in 2006 to replace the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which had faced criticism for being ineffective and politicized.
The HRC is comprised of 47 member states elected by the UN General Assembly for staggered three-year terms. Members are chosen based on their commitment to human rights and their willingness to uphold high standards in this regard. The council meets several times a year in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss and address human rights issues globally.
The council's responsibilities include:
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The HRC examines human rights situations in different countries, receives reports from special rapporteurs, and can establish commissions of inquiry or fact-finding missions to investigate specific situations.
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The council plays a key role in developing and promoting international human rights standards and norms. It adopts resolutions, decisions, and declarations on various human rights issues.
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The HRC supports countries in strengthening their human rights institutions and practices through technical assistance, advisory services, and capacity-building programs.
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The council conducts periodic reviews of the human rights records of all UN member states through the UPR mechanism. During these reviews, countries' human rights records are examined, and recommendations are made to address any shortcomings
- The Human Rights Council was established by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on March 15, 2006, succeeding the former UN Commission on Human Rights. Its inaugural session took place from June 19 to June 30, 2006.
- In 2007, the Council implemented an "institution-building package" to establish its operational procedures and mechanisms. These included the introduction of the Universal Periodic Review mechanism, designed to evaluate the human rights conditions in all UN Member States.
- Additionally, the Advisory Committee was established to serve as a repository of expertise for the Council, offering guidance on thematic human rights matters. Moreover, the Complaint Procedure was introduced, enabling individuals and organizations to bring instances of human rights violations to the Council's attention.
- Furthermore, the Council collaborates with the UN Special Procedures, originally established by the former Commission on Human Rights. This framework comprises special rapporteurs, special representatives, independent experts, and working groups tasked with monitoring, examining, advising, and reporting on specific human rights issues or conditions in individual countries
- The Council convenes at the UN Office located in Geneva, Switzerland, and comprises 47 UN Member States elected through a direct and confidential ballot by majority vote at the UNGA. The selection process, as outlined on the Council's website, considers the candidate States' efforts in advancing and safeguarding human rights, alongside their voluntary commitments in this domain.
- Membership distribution within the Council ensures geographical equity. African and Asia-Pacific states hold 13 seats each, Latin American and Caribbean states possess 8 seats, Western European and other states have 7 seats, and Eastern European states hold 6 seats.
- Each member serves a term of three years and is ineligible for immediate re-election after serving two consecutive terms. Membership entails a responsibility to uphold rigorous human rights standards, a criterion underscored by States themselves during the adoption of resolution 60/251 in March 2006, which established the Human Rights Council, according to the Council.
- Allegedly, Russia has breached this responsibility in Ukraine. Russia commenced its three-year term as a member of the Council on January 1, 2021
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Leadership of the Council
The Council is governed by a Bureau comprising five individuals: a president and four vice-presidents, with each representing a different regional group. Their terms last for one year, aligned with the Council's annual cycle. Leading the Human Rights Council during the 16th Cycle (2022) is Federico Villegas, who serves as the Permanent Representative of Argentina to the UN and other international bodies in Geneva. Villegas assumed the presidency of the Human Rights Council for the year 2022 following his election in December 2021.
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- The Human Rights Council convenes at least three regular sessions annually, totaling a minimum of 10 weeks. These sessions occur in March (4 weeks), June (3 weeks), and September (3 weeks). The most recent regular session (49th) of the Council took place from February 28 to April 1, 2022.
- In the event that a third of the Member states request it, the Council has the authority to convene a special session at any point to address urgent human rights violations and crises.
- During the presidency of Nazhat S Khan from Fiji, the Council held a notable five special sessions in 2021, focusing on issues concerning Myanmar, the Occupied Palestinian Territory and Israel, Afghanistan, Sudan, and Ethiopia
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For Prelims: UNHRC, UNGA, Amnesty International
For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and significance of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) in addressing global human rights issues. Highlight its key functions, mechanisms, and achievements, with a particular emphasis on its Universal Periodic Review (UPR) mechanism
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following statements regarding the Human Rights Council is not correct? (CDS GK 2018)
A.It is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations system made up of all members of the UN.
B.It is responsible for the promotion and protection of all human nights around the globe.
C.It replaced the former United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
D.It is made up of 47 UN Member States which are elected by the UN General Assembly.
Answer (A)
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DARK ENERGY
- Dark energy is a theoretical form of energy that is thought to permeate all of space and is believed to be responsible for the observed accelerating expansion of the universe. It is one of the greatest mysteries in modern cosmology.
- Dark energy was first proposed as a possible explanation for the accelerated expansion of the universe in the late 1990s, based on observations of distant supernovae (exploding stars). These observations suggested that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down due to gravity, as previously thought, but rather accelerating.
- The nature of dark energy remains largely unknown, but it is often described as a repulsive force that counteracts the gravitational attraction between galaxies and other cosmic structures. This repulsive force is believed to be causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate over time.
- Despite its name, dark energy is not like ordinary matter or energy that we are familiar with. It does not interact with electromagnetic forces, so it does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it invisible and undetectable through traditional observational methods. Instead, its presence is inferred from its gravitational effects on the large-scale structure of the universe.
- The exact nature of dark energy is still a subject of intense research and speculation in cosmology. Various theoretical models have been proposed to explain its properties, including the possibility that it could be a property of empty space itself (often referred to as vacuum energy or the cosmological constant) or a dynamic field that evolves over time.
- Understanding dark energy is crucial for our understanding of the fate and ultimate structure of the universe. However, many fundamental questions about dark energy, such as its origin, composition, and ultimate implications for the universe's destiny, remain unanswered and continue to challenge scientists
- The concept of dark energy arises primarily from the observation of the universe's rapid expansion. Despite the gravitational force's tendency to pull celestial objects together, measurements indicate that the vast empty spaces between stars and galaxies are expanding at an increasing rate.
- Scientists have struggled to account for this phenomenon, leading them to speculate about the existence of "dark" energy driving this expansion.
- Understanding dark energy represents a critical challenge in contemporary science, as it holds the potential to provide significant insights into the universe's origin, evolution, and ultimate destiny.
- Furthermore, it may unveil previously unknown fundamental forces at play, potentially revolutionizing our understanding of the physical universe. However, thus far, scientists have been unable to decipher even the initial aspects of this complex puzzle
- Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit, absorb, or reflect electromagnetic radiation like visible light. It is called "dark" because it does not interact with electromagnetic forces and thus cannot be directly observed with telescopes or other instruments that detect light. Despite this, its presence is inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter and light.
- The evidence for dark matter comes from observations of the motions of galaxies and galaxy clusters. When astronomers observe the rotation of galaxies or the movement of galaxies within clusters, they find that the visible matter (such as stars, gas, and dust) cannot account for the observed gravitational forces holding these structures together. There appears to be much more mass present than what can be seen directly, leading scientists to postulate the existence of dark matter.
- Dark matter is believed to make up a significant portion of the total mass-energy content of the universe, possibly as much as 27% of the universe's total density. It is thought to play a crucial role in the formation and evolution of galaxies and large-scale structures in the universe.
- Despite decades of research, the exact nature of dark matter remains unknown. Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain its properties, including the possibility that it consists of yet-undiscovered subatomic particles that interact only weakly with other matter (such as WIMPs or axions). Alternatively, some theories suggest modifications to the laws of gravity on cosmic scales, such as modifications to general relativity.
- Understanding dark matter is one of the key challenges in modern astrophysics and cosmology, as it has profound implications for our understanding of the universe's composition, structure, and evolution. Efforts to detect dark matter directly through experiments conducted in underground laboratories and indirectly through astronomical observations continue in order to unravel its mysteries
| Topic | Dark Energy | Dark Matter |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Hypothetical form of energy | Hypothetical form of matter |
| Interaction | Does not interact with electromagnetic forces | Does not emit, absorb, or reflect light |
| Visibility | Cannot be directly observed with telescopes | Cannot be directly observed with telescopes |
| Detection | Inferred from the observed accelerating expansion of the universe | Inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter |
| Effect on Universe | Believed to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe | Believed to contribute to the gravitational forces holding galaxies and clusters together |
| Relative Abundance | Accounts for about 68% of the universe's total energy density | Accounts for about 27% of the universe's total mass-energy content |
| Role in Cosmology | Crucial for understanding the fate and structure of the universe | Essential for explaining the formation and evolution of galaxies and large-scale structures |
| Current Understanding | Poorly understood, remains a major mystery in cosmology | The subject of ongoing research and experimentation in astrophysics |
Black holes are regions in space where the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from them once it crosses a boundary called the event horizon. They are formed from the remnants of massive stars that have undergone gravitational collapse at the end of their life cycle.
Key features of black holes include:
- Event Horizon: This is the boundary surrounding a black hole beyond which nothing can escape its gravitational pull. Once an object crosses the event horizon, it is essentially trapped within the black hole's gravitational field
- Singularity: At the center of a black hole lies a point of infinite density called a singularity. The laws of physics, as we currently understand them, break down at this point, and our understanding of the universe's behavior breaks down
- Formation: Black holes can form through various processes, but the most common is the collapse of massive stars. When a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it can no longer support itself against gravitational collapse, causing it to implode and form a black hole
- Types: There are several types of black holes, including stellar-mass black holes, which are formed from the collapse of massive stars; supermassive black holes, which are found at the centers of galaxies and can have masses millions or billions of times that of the Sun; and intermediate-mass black holes, which have masses between those of stellar-mass and supermassive black holes
- Effects on Surroundings: Black holes have a significant impact on their surroundings. They can distort the paths of nearby objects through gravitational lensing, tear apart nearby stars with their intense tidal forces, and emit powerful jets of radiation and particles as matter falls into them, leading to the formation of quasars and active galactic nuclei
XENON1T is an experimental dark matter detection project located in the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory in Italy. It is designed to detect the rare interactions between dark matter particles and ordinary matter using a large tank of liquid xenon.
Key features of XENON1T include:
- Detection Principle: XENON1T utilizes the principle of direct detection, which involves searching for the rare scattering events between dark matter particles and atomic nuclei. The experiment is specifically designed to detect the recoil of xenon nuclei when they are struck by dark matter particles passing through the detector
- Liquid Xenon Detector: The core of XENON1T is a large tank filled with liquid xenon, which serves as the target for dark matter interactions. The detector is located deep underground to shield it from cosmic rays and other sources of background radiation that could interfere with the measurements
- Sensitive Instrumentation: XENON1T is equipped with highly sensitive detectors capable of detecting the tiny amounts of light and charge produced by the recoil of xenon nuclei. These detectors are designed to distinguish between signals produced by potential dark matter interactions and background noise from other sources
- Search for Dark Matter: The primary goal of XENON1T is to search for evidence of dark matter particles interacting with ordinary matter. By measuring the rate and characteristics of potential dark matter interactions, scientists aim to learn more about the properties and nature of dark matter, which remains one of the greatest mysteries in modern physics
- Results and Collaboration: XENON1T has conducted several data-taking runs since its inception, with each run contributing to the ongoing search for dark matter. The project involves collaboration between scientists and researchers from institutions around the world, pooling expertise and resources to tackle one of the most challenging questions in astrophysics and particle physics
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For Prelims: Science and Technology (Current issues of international importance)
For Mains: GS 3: Science and Technology (Space)
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidence for the continued expansion of the universe? (UPSC CSE 2012)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 Answer (a) Explanation:
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UNITED NATIONS AGENCY FOR PALESTINIAN REFUGEES (UNRWA)
UNRWA, the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East, was established in 1949 to support Palestinians displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.
- Operating in Gaza, the Israeli-occupied West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan, UNRWA delivers education, healthcare, relief, social services, microfinance, and emergency assistance programs, particularly within refugee camps.
- Currently serving approximately 5.9 million Palestinian refugees, most of whom are descendants of the original refugees, UNRWA's services are critical, especially in Gaza, where a significant portion of the population relies on UNRWA facilities.
- Primarily reliant on voluntary contributions from donor states like the US, UNRWA also receives a limited subsidy from the UN for administrative costs.
UNRWA plays a crucial role in providing essential services to Palestinian refugees, contributing to stability and humanitarian support in the region.
- The subtleties of the allegations are sparse. Israel has claimed that 12 staff individuals from UNRWA were associated with the October 7 assault.
- It has likewise guaranteed that Hamas redirects reserves given to UNRWA and battles from in and around the organization's offices.
- Israel has affirmed that "Hamas burrows (are) running close to or under UNRWA
offices and blames the organization for showing scorn of Israel in its schools," AP
announced.
- The UNRWA has denied every one of the claims, saying it has no connections to Hamas. In the proclamation, UN authorities expressed out of 12 staff individuals who were blamed for being engaged with the assault, nine have been ended. One is affirmed dead and the personality of the two others is being explained.
- Any UN worker associated with demonstrations of fear will considered responsible, incorporated through criminal arraignment.
- The claims against the office are a "planned political assault" by Israel. " The Israelis have
said they can't win the conflict in Gaza except if UNRWA is disbanded.
With UNRWA facing a severe funding crisis, immediate steps must be taken to ensure the continuation of vital humanitarian assistance in Gaza.
- The conflict has plunged Gaza into a dire humanitarian situation, where basic necessities like food, water, and shelter are scarce. UNRWA plays a crucial role in providing essential aid to the civilian population, making its continued operations vital for the survival of thousands.
- As the primary provider of food, water, and shelter in Gaza, UNRWA's services are indispensable for the well-being of the enclave's residents. Without adequate funding, the agency's ability to deliver essential aid would be severely compromised.
- UNRWA is on the brink of a financial collapse, with funds dwindling rapidly. Without immediate intervention, the agency will be unable to sustain its aid efforts, exacerbating the suffering of the people in Gaza.
- Urgent measures are needed to restore funding to UNRWA and ensure the continuation of its vital humanitarian operations in Gaza. International support and solidarity are crucial in addressing the funding shortfall and averting a humanitarian catastrophe in the region.
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For Prelims: United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, Hamas, Gaza, Arab-Israeli war, Israel
For Mains:
1. The conflict between Israel and Palestine has a long and troubled history. How can the international community play a more constructive role in facilitating a lasting peace agreement? Discuss the potential impact of a humanitarian crisis in Gaza on regional security. (250 Words)
2. The UNRWA funding crisis raises ethical concerns about the politicization of humanitarian aid. What are the ethical obligations of member states towards refugees living in conflict zones? Discuss the principles that should guide international responses to humanitarian crises. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2016) Community sometimes In the affairs of mentioned in the news 1. Kurd — Bangladesh
2. Madhesi — Nepal
3. Rohingya — Myanmar
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021) 1. There is only one citizenship and one domicile.
2. A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.
3. A foreigner once granted the citizenship cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. Bidibidi is a large refugee settlement in north-western Kenya. 2. Some people who fled from South Sudan civil war live in Bidibidi. 3. Some people who fled from civil war in Somalia live in Dadaab refugee complex in Kenya. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. 3 only
4. Which one of the following statements regarding the Human Rights Council is not correct? (CDS GK 2018)
A.It is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations system made up of all members of the UN.
B.It is responsible for the promotion and protection of all human nights around the globe.
C.It replaced the former United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
D.It is made up of 47 UN Member States which are elected by the UN General Assembly.
Answers:1-C, 2- A, 3-C, 4-A
1. How does illegal transborder migration pose a threat to India’s security? Discuss the strategies to curb this, bringing out the factors which give impetus to such migration. (UPSC 2014) |
LIQUIDITY ADJUSTMENT FACILITY (LAF)
Liquidity refers to the degree to which an asset or security can be quickly bought or sold in the market without affecting its price. Essentially, it's a measure of how easily an asset can be converted into cash without causing a significant change in its value.
Assets like cash and highly liquid securities (such as stocks and bonds traded on major exchanges) are considered highly liquid because they can be easily bought or sold without much impact on their market price. On the other hand, assets like real estate or certain types of investments might be less liquid because they take longer to sell or may require finding a suitable buyer.
Liquidity is an important consideration for investors because it affects the ease with which they can enter or exit positions in the market. Higher liquidity generally implies lower transaction costs and reduced price volatility, while lower liquidity can lead to higher transaction costs and greater price volatility. In times of financial stress, liquidity can become scarce, leading to wider bid-ask spreads and potentially exacerbating market downturns. Central banks and regulators often monitor liquidity conditions in financial markets closely to ensure their smooth functioning
3. What is Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF)?
The Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) is a monetary policy tool used by central banks to manage liquidity conditions in the financial system. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) primarily uses the term LAF, though similar mechanisms exist in other central banking systems under different names
LAF has two components are the following:
- Repo Rate: The LAF consists of two main components: the repo rate and the reverse repo rate. The repo rate is the rate at which the central bank lends short-term funds to commercial banks against collateral such as government securities. When the central bank wants to inject liquidity into the system, it decreases the repo rate, making it cheaper for banks to borrow money. Conversely, when it wants to reduce liquidity, it increases the repo rate
- Reverse Repo Rate: This is the rate at which the central bank borrows funds from commercial banks. It serves as a tool for the central bank to absorb excess liquidity from the banking system. When the central bank increases the reverse repo rate, it incentivizes banks to park more funds with the central bank to earn higher returns, thereby reducing the liquidity available in the market
The LAF operates through daily auctions conducted by the central bank, where banks can borrow or lend funds depending on their liquidity requirements. The rates at which these transactions occur influence short-term interest rates and overall liquidity conditions in the economy.
By adjusting the repo rate and reverse repo rate, the central bank aims to achieve its monetary policy objectives, such as controlling inflation, promoting economic growth, and maintaining financial stability. The LAF plays a crucial role in managing liquidity in the financial system and ensuring its smooth functioning
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Monetary policy refers to the actions undertaken by a country's central bank (such as the Federal Reserve in the United States, the European Central Bank in the Eurozone, or the Reserve Bank of India in India) to control the money supply, interest rates, and ultimately, the overall economic activity in the country. The primary goals of monetary policy typically include:
Central banks utilize various tools and instruments to implement monetary policy, including: Interest rates: Adjusting the key policy interest rates, such as the federal funds rate in the United States, the repo rate in India, or the main refinancing rate in the Eurozone. Changes in interest rates influence borrowing and lending behavior, investment decisions, and consumer spending, thereby impacting economic activity and inflation
Open market operations (OMO): Buying and selling government securities (bonds) in the open market to influence the money supply and interest rates. When a central bank purchases securities, it injects money into the financial system, increasing liquidity and lowering interest rates. Conversely, when it sells securities, it withdraws money from the system, reducing liquidity and raising interest rates Reserve requirements: Setting requirements for the amount of reserves commercial banks must hold against their deposits. Adjusting reserve requirements can affect the amount of money banks can lend and their ability to create credit in the economy Forward guidance: Communicating the central bank's future policy intentions and economic outlook to influence market expectations and behaviour Quantitative easing (QE): A non-conventional monetary policy tool used during periods of economic crisis or low inflation, involving large-scale purchases of long-term securities to lower long-term interest rates and boost liquidity in the financial system Tools under the Monetary Policy:
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Previous Year Questions
1.The RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do? (UPSC CSE 2020)
Answer: (b) 1.Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 3 2019)
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GREEN HYDROGEN
| Characteristic | Green Hydrogen | Grey Hydrogen |
| Production Method | Electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources (solar, wind) | Steam methane reforming from natural gas |
| Environmental Impact | Virtually emissions-free, utilizing renewable energy and water as feedstock | High carbon emissions contribute to environmental degradation |
| Carbon Emissions | No carbon emissions during production or consumption | High carbon emissions during production |
| Sustainability | Represents an end-to-end green pathway for hydrogen production | Contributes significantly to carbon emissions and environmental degradation |
| Purpose | Offers a sustainable alternative to traditional hydrogen production | Predominantly used in industrial applications |
- Major Indian commercial vehicle manufacturers like Tata Motors, Volvo Eicher, and Ashok Leyland are intensifying their efforts in developing hydrogen-powered trucks and buses. They are investing heavily in research and development while expanding manufacturing capacities.
- Simultaneously, Indian energy companies are striving to scale up green hydrogen production and drive down costs to enhance their competitiveness against other fuels.
- Hydrogen is poised to become a cornerstone in the transportation sector shortly. With India being a substantial and growing market for both vehicles and energy, the widespread adoption of green hydrogen as a vehicular fuel holds immense potential for the country.
- The utilization of green hydrogen offers substantial emissions reductions, crucial for combating global warming and climate change. India sees various benefits, including pollution mitigation, achieving climate targets, reducing dependency on costly fossil fuel imports, and seizing the opportunity to establish itself as a global hub for green hydrogen production and export.
4. MNRE Scheme for the Transportation Sector
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched a pilot project scheme in February to assess the viability of green hydrogen as a transportation fuel.
The scheme focuses on three key objectives
- Technical Feasibility and Performance: Validate the technical capabilities and performance of green hydrogen when used as a fuel for vehicles.
- Economic Viability: Evaluate the economic feasibility of green hydrogen-powered vehicles, including factors like costs and potential returns.
- Safe Operation Demonstration: Showcase the safe operation of both hydrogen-powered vehicles and the associated refuelling stations.
The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways will appoint a dedicated agency to manage the scheme. This agency will then invite proposals for pilot projects. Following a selection process, the chosen company or consortium will become the executing agency responsible for carrying out the project.
Funding for these pilot projects will come in the form of viability gap funding (VGF) approved by the MNRE based on the recommendations of a Project Appraisal Committee. The VGF amount will be determined on a project-by-project basis, considering factors like specific needs, merits, and overall feasibility. The executing agency will have two years to complete the pilot project.
A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle operates similarly to traditional cars powered by diesel or petrol, but with a key difference: there are no carbon emissions produced during combustion.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen electrochemically by converting it into electricity through a fuel cell. This process involves storing hydrogen in a high-pressure tank and generating electricity, with water being the only byproduct. While hydrogen ICE vehicles don't emit carbon, research suggests that burning hydrogen is less energy-efficient compared to converting it into electricity in a fuel cell.
Advantages of Hydrogen FCEVs Over Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
Compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where the battery constitutes the heaviest part of the vehicle, hydrogen FCEVs are typically lighter. This is because hydrogen is a lighter element, and a fuel cell stack weighs less than an electric vehicle (EV) battery. This feature makes hydrogen fuel cell technology a promising alternative to EV battery technology, particularly for heavy-duty trucks that can benefit from increased payload capacity without emitting smoke from burning diesel.
The Promise of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology
Research indicates that long-haul FCEVs can carry freight amounts comparable to diesel trucks, whereas long-haul BEVs face a weight penalty of up to 25% due to heavier batteries. Given the imperative to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector while maintaining revenue-generating payload capacity, green hydrogen emerges as a promising solution.
6. Challenges Facing the Adoption of Green Hydrogen in Transportation
The widespread adoption of green hydrogen in the transportation sector encounters several significant challenges
- The primary obstacle is the high cost of green hydrogen production. Additionally, challenges related to storage and transportation at scale further compound the issue. However, ongoing technological innovation and increased production scaling are expected to drive costs down in the coming years.
- Despite advancements, green hydrogen-powered vehicles are not yet perceived as a viable alternative to four-wheel electric vehicles (EVs). Challenges such as fuel costs and the establishment of supporting infrastructure hinder their widespread acceptance. Recent closures of hydrogen refuelling stations in California, despite remaining operational for heavy-duty vehicles, underscore the challenges in this regard.
- For hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) to compete effectively with battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the cost of green hydrogen needs to range between $3 and $6.5 per kilogram by 2030. However, current retail prices in California are substantially higher, and the cost of building hydrogen refuelling stations for trucks is significantly greater than that of BEV stations.
- Specialized cylinders capable of storing green hydrogen pose another challenge. Existing cylinders designed for compressed natural gas (CNG) are unsuitable due to the higher pressure requirements of hydrogen. Developing high-pressure hydrogen cylinders with sufficient strength, typically using carbon fibre, incurs high costs, hampering hydrogen's adoption as a transport fuel.
- Hydrogen's flammability necessitates stringent safety measures compared to conventional fuels like diesel, petrol, or even CNG. Robust handling and safety standards are imperative before large-scale adoption can be pursued.
- Advancements in battery technologies, resulting in lighter EV batteries, may pose a long-term challenge to the viability of green hydrogen-powered heavy-duty commercial vehicles. As battery weight decreases, the attractiveness of hydrogen-powered vehicles may diminish.
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For Prelims: Green Hydrogen, compressed natural gas, Electric Vehicles, Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles, Grey Hydrogen, The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
For Mains:
1. Green hydrogen production utilizes electrolysis, a process powered by renewable energy sources. However, large-scale production of renewable energy also has environmental implications. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in promoting green hydrogen as a sustainable solution. (250 words)
2. India aspires to become a global hub for green hydrogen production and export. What are the strategic advantages India possesses to achieve this goal? Discuss the policy measures and technological advancements needed to make India a leader in this emerging field. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to 'fuel cells' in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one B. Only two C. All three D. None
Answers: 1-A, 2-C
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2. Specifications of Election Symbols
- Symbols are allocated to political parties and contesting candidates according to the provisions of the Symbols Order by the ECI. In a democracy where a significant portion of the population is illiterate, symbols play a vital role in the voting process. A recognized political party is assigned a reserved symbol that is not allotted to any other candidate in any constituency.
- For registered but unrecognised political parties, one of the free symbols is allotted as a common symbol during an election if that party contests in two Lok Sabha constituencies or in 5% of seats in the Assembly of a State, as applicable.
3. Allocation of Common Symbols
According to Rule 10B of the Symbols Order, a concession of a common free symbol is granted to a 'registered unrecognised party' for two general elections. To be eligible for a common symbol in subsequent elections, the party must have secured at least 1% of votes polled in the State during the previous election when availing of this facility. The party must apply for a symbol within six months before the expiry of the Lok Sabha or State Assembly term and symbols are allotted on a 'first-come-first-served' basis.
- Case of Naam Tamilar Katchi (NTK) Despite securing more than 1% of votes in the last two elections with the common symbol 'Ganna Kisan', the NTK applied for the symbol only in February 2024. The Election Commission of India (ECI) allotted the symbol to the Bharatiya Praja Aikyata Party (BPAP), which had applied earlier based on the 'first-come-first-served' rule. Notably, the BPAP has not contested elections in Tamil Nadu previously.
- The case of Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi (VCK) was denied the allotment of a common symbol because it failed to secure 1% of votes polled in the 2021 elections to the State Legislative Assembly. Despite having one Lok Sabha MP and four MLAs in Tamil Nadu contesting on the 'Pot' symbol in the 2019 and 2021 elections, the VCK's application for a common symbol was declined.
4. Addressing Symbol Allocation Issues
The Election Commission of India (ECI) should conduct a comprehensive review of the existing rules governing symbol allocation to ensure fairness and transparency in the process.
- Consideration of Electoral Performance: The ECI should consider amending the rules to give due weightage to the electoral performance of registered unrecognised parties. Parties that secure at least 1% of votes polled in a previous election or have elected representatives in the Lok Sabha or State Assembly should be eligible for the allocation of a common symbol of their choice.
- Ensuring Voter Understanding: To enhance voter understanding and trust in the electoral process, the ECI should ensure that decisions regarding symbol allocation are made in a manner that is easily comprehensible to the average voter. The current scenario, where parties with significant voter support are denied their preferred symbols, can be perplexing and may undermine confidence in the electoral system.
- Fair Representation: Amending the rules to allow registered unrecognised parties with a certain threshold of electoral support or elected representatives to choose a common symbol would promote fair representation in the democratic process. This would ensure that parties with genuine voter support are not disadvantaged due to procedural constraints.
- Strengthening Democratic Processes: By revising the rules to account for past electoral performance and representation, the ECI can contribute to strengthening democratic processes and fostering inclusivity in the political landscape. Fair and transparent symbol allocation mechanisms are essential for upholding the principles of democracy and ensuring equal opportunities for all political parties.
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India, Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968
For Mains:
1. What is the significance of election symbols in a democracy with a large illiterate population? How can the Election Commission of India (ECI) balance the need for stability with fostering a vibrant political landscape through its symbol allocation policies? (250 Words)
2. A political party with a significant vote share is denied its preferred symbol due to a technicality. This can lead to confusion among voters and potentially undermine their trust in the electoral process. How can the ECI uphold ethical principles and ensure public confidence in its decisions regarding symbol allocation? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 3 only 2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3
Answers: 1-D, 2-B Mains 1. In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC 2018) |
GLOBAL INDICES FOR DEMOCRACY
2. Significance of Democracy Indices to India
- Challenges to Global Rating Assessments: India has consistently rejected global rating assessments across multiple domains, including democracy, press freedom, hunger, human development, and happiness. Foreign Minister S. Jaishankar, in 2021, denounced the creators of these indices as "self-appointed custodians," suggesting they might have ulterior motives rather than being objective evaluators.
- Critique of Democracy Assessments: The criticism against democracy assessments primarily revolves around perceived flaws in methodology, inadequate sample sizes, and allegations of cultural bias favouring subjective opinions over objective metrics. India's positioning in these indices, such as being ranked between Niger, governed by a military junta, and the Ivory Coast, as well as being in the same category as Palestine, raises questions about the validity and fairness of these assessments.
- India's Defense of Democratic Standards: Despite these challenges, Mr Jaishankar argues that any benchmark of democracy, whether it's fair elections or electoral participation, would suggest that India is performing on par with other democracies. This defence aims to showcase India's democratic credentials and challenge the negative portrayal presented by these indices.
3. Types of Data Utilized by Indices
Indices measuring democracy employ various methodologies, incorporating both factual and subjective elements. They draw upon four main types of data:
Debate Over Methodological Approaches: While the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights advocates for prioritizing observational, objective data to enhance the credibility and acceptance of assessments, some argue that fact-based metrics alone are insufficient. They contend that expert intervention is necessary to capture the complex realities of governance on the ground.
Evaluation Criteria and Dimensions of Democracy: Different indices pose varying questions and dimensions to evaluate the health of democracy beyond electoral participation. While all recognize democracy as a system where citizens participate in free and fair elections, indices like V-Dem's, Economist Intelligence Unit, and the Bertelsmann Transformation Index assess additional dimensions. These include:
- Participatory Democracy: Evaluating the functionality of citizen groups and civil society organizations.
- Deliberative Decision-Making: Assessing whether decisions are made in the best interest of all citizens rather than through coercion or minority group interests.
- Egalitarianism: Examining the equal distribution of economic and social resources.
Methodological Variations: The approach to measuring democracy varies widely among indices, with differences in the number of indicators used (ranging from two to over 400), as well as in the assigned weightage and aggregation models. For example, V-Dem researchers code indicators across 12 areas, including media, civil society, political parties, and civil liberties, with each area assessed by five experts.
4. Limitations of Democracy Indices
Despite their utility in capturing broad trends in democracy, democracy indices are subject to several limitations:
- Subjectivity in Evaluation: One of the most common criticisms is the inherent subjectivity involved in the assessment process. Evaluations rely on the judgment of researchers and coders rather than concrete characteristics, which can undermine credibility and precision. For example, V-Dem's "egalitarian" indicator evaluates the equality of social groups in the political arena, which can be a subjective measure compared to more tangible indicators like the number of political parties.
- Scope of Coverage: Many indices have limited coverage, focusing primarily on independent states and overlooking non-independent or microstates. This omission can lead to the oversight of smaller countries in certain cases, affecting the comprehensiveness of the assessments.
- Ideological Discrepancy: There is often perceived ideological bias in some indices, partly due to the ambiguous definition of democracy itself. For instance, countries like Lesotho, which experienced a military coup in 2014, may receive higher scores than others like India, leading to discrepancies in rankings.
No Singular Definition or Index: Democracy is a complex concept with no universally agreed-upon definition. Similarly, there is no singular, perfect democracy index. Each index may emphasize different aspects of democracy and use varied methodologies, making direct comparisons challenging.
Acknowledgement of Utility: Despite these limitations, experts recognize that democracy indices play a valuable role in capturing significant dynamics and trends in democracy. They provide a framework for benchmarking the strengths and weaknesses of regimes, facilitating comparisons across different periods and geographical regions.
5. The Way Forward
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For Prelims: Democracy, democracy index, Varieties of Democracy
For Mains:
1. India has recently been critical of various Democracy Indices and plans to launch its own. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of this approach? How can India constructively engage with existing Democracy Indices? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements:
The Parliamentary Committee on Public Accounts (UPSC 2013)
1. consists of not more than 25 members of the Lok Sabha.
2. scrutinizes appropriation and finance accounts of the Government.
3. examines the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc., conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018)
A. Committee on Government Assurances
B. Committee on Subordinate Legislation
C. Rules Committee
D. Business Advisory Committee
3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020)
A. 22 B. 10 C. 20 D. 15
4. Democracy's superior virtue lies in the fact that it calls into activity (UPSC 2017) A. the intelligence and character of ordinary men and women.
B. the methods for strengthening executive leadership.
C. a superior individual with dynamism and vision.
D. a band of dedicated party workers.
5. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. In the first Lok Sabha, the single largest party in the opposition was the Swatantra Party.
2. In the Lok Sabha, a "Leader of the Opposition" was recognized for the first time in 1969.
3. In the Lok Sabha, if a party does not have a minimum of 75 members, its leader cannot be recognized as the Leader of the Opposition.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
6. With reference to the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. As per the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, the election of Deputy Speaker shall be held on such date as the Speaker may fix.
2. There is a mandatory provision that the election of a candidate as Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha shall be from either the principal opposition party or the ruling party.
3. The Deputy Speaker has the same power as of the Speaker when presiding over the sitting of the House and no appeal lies against his rulings.
4. The well-established parliamentary practice regarding the appointment of a Deputy Speaker is that the motion is moved by the Speaker and duly seconded by the Prime Minister.
Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 3 only B. 1, 2 and 3 C. 3 and 4 only D. 2 and 4 only Answer: 1-B, 2-B, 3-B, 4-A, 5-B, 6-A
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