XPOSAT MISSION
1. Context
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) kicked off the New Year with the launch of the PSLV-C58 X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) mission on Monday.
The PSLV, in its 60th mission, lifted off at 9.10 a.m. from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota and 22 minutes later launched the XPoSat into an eastward low inclination orbit. The successful launch put India in an elite category as it has become the second nation to send an observatory to study astronomical sources such as black holes, neutron stars among others.
2. What is India’s first polarimetry mission?
India's first polarimetry mission is called XPoSat, which stands for X-ray Polarimeter Satellite. It is a significant accomplishment for the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and is the world's second space mission dedicated to measuring the polarization of light, following NASA's Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) launched in 2021.
3. What is the XPoSat mission?
XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite) is India's first dedicated polarimetry mission, scheduled to launch in 2024 aboard a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). Its primary objective is to study the dynamics of bright astronomical X-ray sources in extreme conditions, such as:
- Black holes are incredibly massive objects that warp spacetime and have immense gravitational pulls.
- Neutron stars are incredibly dense remnants of collapsed stars that spin at incredibly fast rates and have powerful magnetic fields.
- Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are the incredibly bright cores of galaxies, powered by supermassive black holes.
- Pulsar wind nebulae are clouds of gas and plasma ejected by pulsars, rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit beams of radiation.
How XPoSat work?
The satellite carries two scientific payloads
- POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays): This instrument measures the degree and angle of polarization of X-rays from celestial sources. X-ray polarization reveals the geometry and magnetic field properties of the source, providing valuable insights into its inner workings.
- XSPECT (X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing): This instrument gathers spectroscopic information within a different energy range, complementing POLIX data and offering a more comprehensive understanding of the source.
Benefits of XPoSat
By studying the polarization of X-rays, XPoSat will:
- Unravel the mysteries of extreme environments: It will provide new insights into the physical processes occurring near black holes, neutron stars, and AGNs.
- Probe the nature of magnetic fields: X-ray polarization is sensitive to magnetic fields, allowing XPoSat to map and characterize these fields in extreme environments.
- Advance our understanding of particle acceleration: X-ray polarization can trace the paths of high-energy particles ejected from these objects, helping us understand how they are accelerated to such immense speeds.
- Contribute to the field of astrophysics: The mission's findings will contribute significantly to our understanding of the universe's most energetic and fascinating objects.
4. What are X-rays?
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation, like visible light, but with much shorter wavelengths and higher energy. Imagine light on a spectrum, with radio waves at one end and gamma rays at the other. X-rays occupy a middle ground, roughly between ultraviolet light and gamma rays.
- Penetrating power: X-rays can pass through some materials, like bones and tissues, but not others, like metals and lead. This property is why they're used in medical imaging, revealing internal structures while leaving flesh mostly transparent.
- High energy: X-rays pack a punch! Their high energy allows them to interact with matter in unique ways, causing electrons to jump to higher energy levels or even be ejected from atoms. This interaction is crucial for capturing X-ray images and studying the universe's most energetic phenomena.
Witnessing X-Rays in Space
While our atmosphere blocks X-rays from reaching Earth's surface, they abound in the vast expanse of space. Here are some ways we witness these cosmic X-rays:
- Stars and Stellar Remnants: Our own Sun emits X-rays, and much more energetic ones come from stars many times hotter and larger. Supernovae, the explosive deaths of massive stars, and black holes, the ultimate gravitational behemoths, are major sources of X-rays in the universe.
- Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs): These incredibly bright centres of galaxies, powered by supermassive black holes, generate intense X-ray radiation as matter falls into the black hole's gravitational maw.
- Clusters of Galaxies: Where massive galaxies gather, hot gas between them can reach millions of degrees, emitting X-rays that reveal the structure and dynamics of these galactic clusters.
Observing X-rays in space is crucial for understanding various cosmic phenomena:
- Studying extreme environments: X-rays tell us about the hot, dense regions around black holes, neutron stars, and AGNs, where matter behaves in exotic ways.
- Mapping the universe: By analyzing X-ray emissions from different celestial objects, astronomers can map the large-scale structure of the universe and trace the evolution of galaxies and clusters.
- Understanding cosmic processes: X-rays reveal how stars form and die, how black holes feed and grow, and how galaxies interact with each other.
To witness these celestial X-rays, special telescopes are needed. Unlike optical telescopes that capture visible light, X-ray telescopes have detectors sensitive to X-ray wavelengths. Some are positioned above Earth's atmosphere in satellites, like the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the XMM-Newton, while others are balloons or sounding rockets that briefly reach high altitudes.
5. About Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the national space agency of India, established in 1969. It stands as a beacon of innovation and progress, propelling India into the elite club of nations with advanced spacefaring capabilities. Let's delve into its vibrant history, remarkable achievements, and exciting upcoming missions.
Background
- Vision: "To harness the potential of space technology for national development and to use space for the benefit of humanity."
- Mission: "To advance space science and technology, develop application missions for socio-economic benefits, explore the universe and planetary bodies, and promote international cooperation in space activities."
- Key areas of focus: Satellite technology, launch vehicle technology, space science and exploration, and space applications.
Achievements
- One of the six largest space agencies in the world: Possesses full launch capabilities, operates a large fleet of satellites, deploys cryogenic engines, and carries out extraterrestrial missions.
- Over 100 successful satellite launches: Spanning communication, navigation, earth observation, and scientific satellites.
- Development of advanced launch vehicles: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) have placed numerous satellites in orbit.
- Chandrayaan-1 lunar probe: India's first lunar mission, making significant discoveries about the lunar surface.
- Mangalyaan-1 Mars orbiter mission: A historic milestone, making India the first Asian nation to reach Mars.
- International collaborations: Partnering with other space agencies on projects like the Mars Orbiter Mission (with NASA) and Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission (with Japan).
Impact on India
- Technological advancements: Spurred progress in electronics, materials science, and robotics.
- Improved communication infrastructure: Communication satellites connect remote areas, bridging the digital divide.
- Enhanced disaster management: Earth observation satellites provide real-time data for monitoring natural disasters and coordinating relief efforts.
- Economic growth: Space technology applications create jobs and boost sectors like agriculture and healthcare.
Upcoming Missions
- Chandrayaan-3 lunar mission: Scheduled for launch in 2024, aiming to land a rover on the Moon's south polar region.
- Missions to Mars and Venus: Exploring the feasibility of future missions to these planets.
- Development of reusable launch vehicles: Reducing the cost of space missions and making them more sustainable.
- Continued research and development in space science and technology: Furthering India's spacefaring capabilities and contributing to global scientific understanding.
|
For Prelims: Indian Space Research Organisation, polarimetry mission, XPoSat, Aditya-L1, AstroSat, Black holes, Neutron stars, Active galactic nuclei (AGNs), Pulsar wind nebulae, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, For Mains:
1. Analyze the potential benefits of XPoSat in advancing our understanding of extreme environments in space. (250 Words)
2. Explore the potential contributions of future Mars and Venus missions to India's space exploration endeavours. (250 Words)
3. Discuss the impact of ISRO on India's technological advancements, communication infrastructure, and disaster management. (250 Words)
4. Discuss the importance of studying X-rays in space and how they contribute to our understanding of cosmic phenomena. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of space technology, what is "Bhuvan", recently in the news? (UPSC 2010)
A. A mini satellite, launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
B. The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II
C. A geoportal of ISRO with 3 D imaging capabilities of India
D. A space telescope developed by India
2. What will be India's second moon mission by ISRO? (Maharashtra Talathi 2019) A. Chandrayaan 1 B. Chandrayaan 1.A C. Chandrayaan 2 D. Chandrayaan 3
3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019) A. Maharashtra B. Rajasthan C. Kerala D. Andhra Pradesh
4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true? (CTET 2022)
A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon
B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon.
E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth
A. A, B B. B, C C. C, D D. A, E
5. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020) A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020) A. Voyager-2 B. New Horizons C. LISA Pathfinder D. Evolved LISA 7. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only
8. ‘Black hole’ is a (NDA 2019) (UPPSC 2019)
A. huge black star which has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface
B. star which has moderate acceleration due to gravity on its surface
C. star which has collapsed into itself and has large acceleration due to gravity on its surface
D. star which has collapsed into itself and has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface
9. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft Purpose
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
10. Aditya L1 is a ______. (ISRO IPRC Technical Assistant Mechanical 2016)
A. Long-range missile
B. Rocket to moon
C. Spacecraft project
D. Light combat aircraft
11. With reference to 'Astrosat', the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
12. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC 2022)
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
C. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
13. A spinning neutron star emits radio-wave and is called (Maha TAIT 2017)
A. Supernova B. Pulsar C. White dwarf D. Protostar
14. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2023)
Objects in space Description
(1) Cepheids Giant clouds of dust and gas in space
(2) Nebulae Stars which brighten and dim periodically
(3) Pulsars Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
A. Only one B. Only two C. All three D. None
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A, 8-C, 9-B, 10-C, 11-D, 12-C, 13-B, 14-A
Mains
1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics. Explain critically (UPSC 2017) 2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC 2016) |
Source: The Indian Express
JN.1
1. Context
A total of 196 cases of COVID-19 sub-variant JN.1 have been detected in the country so far, with Odisha joining the list of States that have detected the presence of the variant, according to the latest INSACOG (Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium) data.
Ten States and Union territories have so far detected the presence of the sub-variant, which the World Health Organization had classified as a separate “variant of interest”
2. Key takeaways
- The JN.1 sub-variant, which stems from the BA.2.86 variant (known as Pirola), isn't entirely new. It was first identified in the US in September, with its global presence dating back to January this year.
- JN.1 differs from Pirola by having just one extra mutation on the spike protein. Pirola, in contrast, carries over 30 mutations on this protein.
- The significance lies in spike protein mutations as they facilitate the virus's entry into human cells by binding to receptors. Researchers have kept a close eye on JN.1 due to these spike protein alterations within Pirola
Could it trigger a surge in cases or more severe symptoms?
- So far, there's no indication that JN.1 leads to exacerbated symptoms or spreads faster than the already circulating variants.
- Initially, there were worries that Pirola's numerous mutations might enable it to evade the immune response more readily and propagate swiftly. However, that scenario hasn't materialized.
- Notably, a WHO assessment on COVID-19 Vaccine Composition found that both Pirola and JN.1 were effectively neutralized by serum from individuals who had been infected and vaccinated.
- Pirola and JN.1 are classified as Variants of Interest (VOI) but haven't been labeled as Variants of Concern (VOC).
Here's what distinguishes VOI and VOC:
- VOI refers to variants less neutralized by antibodies from infection or vaccination in lab settings and have potential to spread.
- A variant earns VOI status if it displays a growth advantage over other variants, showing increased proportions alongside rising case numbers.
- Additionally, it could be designated as VOI if it's predicted or confirmed to alter characteristics like transmissibility, virulence, antibody evasion, or susceptibility to therapies and diagnostics.
- Once recognized as VOI, the WHO monitors its global spread, assesses its public health risk, and encourages sharing isolates. Member states are required to report VOI cases, monitor, and conduct field investigations to understand the variant's potential impact.
- On the other hand, VOC are variants that drive heightened transmission, severe disease leading to hospitalization, and diminished vaccine effectiveness.
3. What has led to the current concerns?
- Pirola and its close relative JN.1 are causing a noticeable uptick in global cases. Their presence has been identified in various locations such as the USA, several European nations, Singapore, and China.
- According to the WHO, Pirola and its offspring made up 17% of the Sars-CoV-2 sequences uploaded to the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) database.
- By early December, over half of these sequences were attributed to JN.1. In the United States, JN.1 comprised between 15% and 29% of the circulating Covid-19 variants.
- During the week of December 4 to 10, Singapore recorded an estimated 56,043 cases and observed a rise in hospitalizations, particularly among individuals aged 60 and above
4. Way forward
While data from Singapore shows that those who had received their last Covid-19 vaccine dose more than a year ago were 1.6 times more likely to need hospitalisation, experts said that a wide coverage of vaccination and subsequent non-symptomatic infections are likely to have resulted in a significant level of protection in India.
|
UPSC Practice Question
1.Concerning ‘Varient of Interest’ (VOI), seen in the news due to the new Covid-19 sub-variant, consider the following statements: 1. A variant is designated as VOI by WHO if it shows a growth advantage over other circulating variants — meaning its proportion increases along with any increase in the total number of cases. 2. A variant can be designated as VOI if it is predicted to or known to change characteristics such as transmissibility, virulence, antibody evasion, or susceptibility to therapies and diagnostics. 3. Once designated as VOI, the WHO monitors, tracks its global spread and the body also keeps assessing its public health risk and facilitates the sharing of isolates. Which of the above statement/s is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) |
Source: indianexpress
CHARGESHEET
1. Context
The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) on Monday filed chargesheets against 15 persons, including seven security personnel, for alleged irregularities in the written examination to recruit engineers for the Jal Shakti Department.
A CBI spokesman said those against whom the chargesheet was filed included an Assistant Sub-Inspector of J&K Police, CRPF Head Constable, an Army sepoy, teacher and private persons.
2. What is a Charge Sheet?
- A chargesheet defined under section 173 CrPC, is the final report prepared by a police officer or investigative agencies after completing their investigation of a case.
- After preparing the chargesheet, the officer-in-charge of the police station forwards it to the Magistrate, who is empowered to take notice of the offenses mentioned in it.
- The charge sheet is nothing but a final report of the police officer under s. 173(2) of the CrPC,” the apex court held in its 1991 ruling in K Veeraswami vs UOI & Ors.
- A chargesheet must be filed against the accused within a prescribed period of 60-90 days, otherwise, the arrest is illegal and the accused is entitled to bail.
3. What contains in a Charge sheet?
- The charge sheet should contain details of names, the nature of the information, and offenses. Whether the accused is under arrest, in custody, or has been released, whether any action was taken against him, are all important questions that the chargesheet answers.
- Further, when the chargesheet relates to offenses for which there is sufficient evidence against the accused, the officer forwards it to the Magistrate, complete with all documents. This forms the basis for the prosecution's case and the charges to be framed.
4. What is First Information Report(FIR)?
- F.I.R. means any information recorded by an on-duty officer given by an aggrieved person or any other person either in writing or made orally about the commission of a Cognizable Offence.
- Based on the information provided F.I.R. can be registered by the Judicial Magistrate by giving direction to the concerned jurisdictional area of the Police Station.
- Zero F.I.R.: With the help of zero F.I.R., a complaint can be lodged at any police station irrespective of the jurisdiction of the Police Station. It is an amendment that came after Nirbhaya Rape Case.
5. How is a Chargesheet different from an FIR?
- The term ‘chargesheet’ has been expressly defined under Section 173 of the CrPC but ‘First Information Report’ or FIR, has not been defined in either the Indian Penal Code (IPC) or the CrPC.
- Instead, it finds a place under the police regulations/ rules under Section 154 of CrPC, which deals with ‘Information in Cognizable Cases’.
- While the chargesheet is the final report filed towards the end of an investigation, an FIR is filed at the ‘first’ instance’ that the police are informed of a cognizable offense or offense for which one can be arrested without a warrant; such as rape, murder, kidnapping.
- Further, an FIR does not decide a person’s guilt but a chargesheet is complete with evidence and is often used during the trial to prove the offenses the accused is charged with.
- After filing an FIR, the investigation takes place. Only if the police have sufficient evidence can the case be forwarded to the Magistrate, otherwise, the accused is released from custody under Section 169 of the CrPC.
- Finally, the FIR should be filed at the first instance of receiving the knowledge of the occurrence of a cognizable offense.
- According to Section 154 (3) of the CrPC, if any person is aggrieved by the refusal of authorities to file an FIR, they can send the complaint to the Superintendent of Police, who will either investigate himself or direct it to their subordinate.
- A chargesheet is filed by the police or law-enforcement/ investigative agency only after they have gathered sufficient evidence against the accused in respect of the offenses mentioned in the FIR, otherwise, a ‘cancellation report’ or ‘untraced report’ can be filed when due to lack of evidence.
6. Why is a chargesheet not a ‘public document’?
- According to the Court, a chargesheet cannot be made publicly available as it’s not a ‘public document’ under Sections 74 and 76 of the Evidence Act, of 1872.
- Section 74: It defines public documents as those which form the acts or records of sovereign authority, official bodies, tribunals, and of public offices either legislative, judicial, or executive in any part of India, Commonwealth, or a foreign country. It also includes public records “kept in any State of private documents”.
- Documents mentioned in this section are only public documents, and certified copies of them must be provided by the public authority having custody of them.
- Copy of chargesheets along with necessary public documents cannot be said to be public documents under this section.
- Section 76: Any public officer having custody of such documents must provide a copy upon demand and payment of a legal fee, along with a certificate of attestation that states the date, seal, name, and designation of the officer.
- As per Section 75 of the Evidence Act, all documents other than those listed under Section 74 are private documents.
- The Supreme Court in the Youth Bar Association of India vs Union of India case (2016) directed all police stations in the country to publish copies of FIRs online within 24 hours of registration, except in cases where offenses were sensitive.
- Only FIRs were covered by this ruling, and chargesheets were not included.
For Prelims & Mains
|
For Prelims: Chargesheet, First Information Report(FIR), Zero F.I.R., Section 173 of the CrPC, Evidence Act, of 1872, Sections 74 and 76 of the Evidence Act, of 1872, Section 154 (3) of the CrPC, Section 169 of the CrPC.
For Mains: 1. What is a Charge Sheet? Explain How is a Chargesheet different from an FIR?
|
Source: The Indian Express
PMLA
1. Context
On December 28 2023, the Financial Intelligence Unit India (FIU IND) issued show-cause notices to nine offshore virtual digital asset service providers (VDA SPs), including Binance, Kucoin, Huobi, Bitfinex and MEXC Global, among others. This was for “operating illegally” without complying with the provisions of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA). It has also been written to the Secretary of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology to block URLs of the mentioned entities.
2. About PMLA
- The Anti-money laundering legislation was passed by the National Democratic Alliance government in 2002 and came into force on July 1, 2005.
- The PMLA was showcased as India's commitment to the Vienna Convention on combating money, drug trafficking and countering the financing of terror (CFT).
- The law was aimed at curbing the process of converting illegally earned money into legal cash.
- The Act empowered the Enforcement Directorate (ED) to control money laundering, confiscate property and punish offenders.
- ED recorded around 5,422 cases, attached proceeds to the tune of ₹ 1,04,702 crores (approx), filed Prosecution Complaints in 992 cases resulting in the confiscation of ₹ 869. 31 crores and convicted 23 accused persons under PMLA by the end of March 31, 2022.
3. Effect on crypto
- The gazette notification by the Ministry brings cryptocurrency transactions within the ambit of PMLA.
- This means that Indian crypto exchanges will have to report any suspicious activity related to buying or selling of cryptocurrency to the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND).
- This central agency is responsible for receiving, processing, analysing and disseminating information related to suspicious financial transactions to law enforcement agencies and overseas FIUs.
- In its analysis, if the FIU-IND finds wrongdoing, it will alert the ED.
- Under Sections 5 and 8 (4) of the Act, the ED has discretionary powers to search and seize suspected property without any judicial permission.
4. Reasons for tightening the digital trade
- For a little more than a decade, cryptocurrencies, non-fungible tokens (NFT) and other digital assets enjoyed a regulation-free environment.
- But, in the past couple of years, as the use of digital assets has gone mainstream, regulators have turned hawkish.
- The value of all existing cryptocurrencies is about $804 billion as of January 3, 2023.
- It is about twice the GDP of Singapore in 2021.
- In India, over 10 crore Indians have invested in cryptocurrencies.
- The illegal use of cryptocurrencies hit a record $ 20.1 billion last year.
- Transactions associated with sanctioned entities jumped over 1, 00, 000-fold, making up 44 per cent of last year's illegal activity.
5. Tools used to track money laundering via crypto transactions
- Tracking money trail in cryptocurrency transactions may require new tools and approaches as such transfers differ fundamentally from traditional banking channels.
- FIUs may be familiar with Know Your Customer (KYC) or Customer Due Diligence (CDD) norms.
- But the technological nature of VDAs presents a new challenge in gathering information.
- This requires the intelligence unit to broaden its intelligence framework.
| The Cooperation between FIUs to prevent money laundering and recommends the analysis of crypto wallets, their associated addresses and blockchain records and hardware identifiers like IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity), IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) or SEID (Secure Element Identifier) numbers, as well as MAC addresses. |
6. Regulations in other Countries
- The Global Crypto Regulations Report 2023 a large proportion of countries are at various stages of drafting regulations around crypto.
- Most countries have already brought digital assets under anti-money laundering laws.
- Singapore, Japan, Switzerland and Malaysia have legislation on the regulatory framework.
- The U.S., U.K., Australia and Canada have initiated plans for regulation.
- So far, China, Qatar and Saudi Arabia have issued a blanket ban on cryptocurrency.
- The EU is also preparing a cross-jurisdictional regulatory and supervisory framework for crypto-assets.
- The framework seeks to provide legal clarity, consumer and investor protection and market integrity while promoting innovation in digital assets.
7. The Changes imply
- The new clause in the rules for PMLA compliance defines "Politically Exposed Persons" as individuals who have been entrusted with prominent public functions by a foreign country, including the heads of State or Governments, Senior politicians, Senior government or judicial or military officers, senior executives of state-owned corporations and important political party officials.
- The amendment is about foreign PEPs and not domestic ones.
- The move to define politically exposed persons under PMLA is to bring uniformity with a 2008 circular of the RBI for KYC norms/Anti-money laundering standards for banks and financial institutions, which had defined PEPs in line with FATF norms.
- PEP has already been in the RBI's master circular, in line with FATF.
- The definition has now been given in the PMLA rules so that the same definition is applicable everywhere.
8. Significance of the FATF-related changes
- The amendments assume significance ahead of India's proposed FATF assessment, which is expected to be undertaken later this year.
- India's assessment is likely to come up for discussion in the plenary discussion in June, while the possible onsite assessment is slated for November.
- Due to the pandemic and the pause in the FATF's assessment process, the fourth round of mutual evaluation of India had been postponed to 2023.
- Before this, the FATF had undertaken an evaluation for India in June 2010.
- The FATF, which is the global money laundering and terrorist financing watchdog, has 40 recommendations.
- In its recommendations, the FATF states that financial institutions should be required to have appropriate risk-management systems to determine whether a customer or beneficial owner is a domestic PEP or a person who is or has been entrusted with a prominent function by an international organisation.
- The broader objective is to bring in legal uniformity and remove ambiguities before the FATF assessment.
- The 40 recommendations cover seven areas and provide a framework of measures.
- This is to help countries tackle illicit financial flows through laws, regulations and operational measures to ensure authorities can take action to detect and disrupt financial flows that fuel crime and terrorism.
The seven areas are anti-money laundering/ counter-terrorist financing;
- Policies and coordination;
- Money laundering and confiscation;
- Terrorist financing and financing of proliferation;
- Preventive measures;
- Transparency and beneficial ownership of legal persons and arrangements
- Powers and responsibilities of competent authorities and other institutional measures and
- International cooperation.
9. Other Changes in the PMLA rules
- The Amended rules have also lowered the threshold for identifying beneficial owners by reporting entities, where the client is acting on behalf of its beneficial owner, in line with the Companies Act and Income-tax Act.
- The term "beneficial owner" was defined to mean ownership of or entitlement to more than 25 per cent of shares or capital or profit of the company, which has now been reduced to 10 per cent, thereby bringing more indirect participants within the reporting net.
- Also, reporting entities are now required to register details of the client if it's a non-profit organisation on the DARPAN portal of NITI Aayog.
- Every Banking Company or Financial Institution or intermediary, as the case may be, shall register the details of the client, in case of the client is a non-profit organisation, on the DARPAN portal of NITI Aayog, if not already registered and maintain such registration records for five years after the business relationship between a client and a reporting entity has ended or the account has been closed, whichever is later.
- The definition of a non-profit organisation has also been amended and linked to the definition of charitable purpose provided under Section 2 (15) of the Income-tax Act 1961 to include any entity or organisation, constituted for religious or charitable purposes under I-T Act, that is registered as a trust or society under the Societies Registration Act or any similar state legislation or a company registered under the Companies Act.
- The due diligence documentation requirements, which were until now limited to obtaining the basic KYCs of clients such as registration certificates PAN copies and documents of officers holding an attorney to transact on behalf of the client have now been extended.
- It now includes the submission of details such as names of persons holding senior management positions, names of partners, names of beneficiaries, trustees, settlors and authors, as the case may be, depending upon the legal form of the organisation.
- Also, the details of the registered office address and principal place of business are now required to be submitted by clients to financial institutions, banking companies or intermediaries.
For Prelims & Mains
|
For Prelims: Money Laundering Act, Financial Action Task Force, Enforcement Directorate, financing of terror, FIU-IND, NFT, Customer Due Diligence, IMEI, IMSI, SEID, Global Crypto Regulations Report 2023, cryptocurrencies, DARPAN portal of NITI Aayog, Income-tax Act 1961, Societies Registration Act, Companies Act,
For Mains:
1. What is the new Amendment to the Prevention of Money-laundering Act and how it will impact politically exposed persons and NGOs? (250 Words)
|
Source: The Hindu and The Indian Express
RADIOCARBON DATING
1. Context
From the principles of thermodynamics to the intricacies of GPS technology, and from the study of social systems theory to delving into the mysteries of consciousness, the concept of time plays a pivotal role in shaping how we explore, interpret, and comprehend the natural universe. Moreover, it influences our understanding of the diverse societies and technologies that inhabit this universe. The act of measuring and keeping time is essential, providing a framework to grasp its flow and the transformations that mark its course.
One transformative technique, known as radiocarbon dating, emerged as the inaugural method that offered a verifiable means to accomplish this in various scientific disciplines. This innovation not only impacted these fields but also brought about significant transformations in our world, fundamentally altering the way we perceive and comprehend the unfolding of time and the changes that define its passage.
2. What is radiocarbon dating?
- 'Dating' serves as a crucial method to determine the age of objects. Radiocarbon dating specifically relies on the isotope carbon-14 to achieve this.
- Carbon-14 is generated in the Earth's atmosphere through the impact of cosmic rays – streams of energetic charged particles originating from outer space. When these cosmic rays collide with atmospheric nitrogen-14 atoms, carbon-14 is produced. Due to the perpetual passage of cosmic rays through the Earth's atmosphere, carbon-14 is consistently formed in this environment.
- Carbon-14 readily combines with atmospheric oxygen, creating radioactive carbon dioxide. This compound enters the bodies of plants through photosynthesis, subsequently passing into animals upon their consumption of plants. The carbon cycle further distributes it across various biomass.
- In the early 1940s, American chemists Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben synthesized carbon-14 in the laboratory. They discovered that its half-life, contrary to initial expectations, was around 5,000 years. This finding was crucial for radiocarbon dating.
- Inspired by the work of physicist Serge Korff, who demonstrated carbon-14 synthesis by bombarding nitrogen-14 with neutrons, Willard Libby conceived the idea of using carbon-14 to date organic materials. He published this groundbreaking concept in the journal Physical Review in 1946.
Libby's idea rested on two assumptions:
- Stability of Atmospheric Carbon-14: The concentration of carbon-14 in the Earth's atmosphere remains constant over thousands of years.
- Diffusion Across Ecosystems: Carbon-14 can diffuse into the Earth's various ecosystems, maintaining comparable concentrations across biospheres.
Subsequent scientific studies validated both assumptions made by Libby, ensuring the reliability of radiocarbon dating as an effective tool for dating organic materials.
3. Mechanism of Radiocarbon Dating
- When an organic entity, such as the human body, is alive, it engages in constant exchanges of carbon with its surroundings through activities like breathing, consuming food, and shedding skin. This results in a near-constant concentration of carbon-14 in the body, maintaining equilibrium with the environment.
- Upon death, these life-sustaining activities cease, leading to a decline in the concentration of carbon-14 within the body due to radioactive decay.
- The decay rate of carbon-14 follows a predictable pattern that can be theoretically determined. As time elapses, the amount of carbon-14 lost increases, resulting in a diminishing concentration.
- Radiocarbon dating revolves around measuring the remaining amount of carbon-14 in an object. Scientists, aided by computers, utilize this data to calculate the time elapsed since the organism's death.
- In the late 1940s, Willard Libby and chemist James Arnold validated the radiocarbon dating technique by applying it to objects with known ages. This included dating redwood trees based on tree rings and determining the age of a piece of an Egyptian pharaoh's funerary boat, where the death date was recorded. Their findings, demonstrating accurate age estimation, were published in the journal Science in 1949.
- Given that carbon-14 undergoes radioactive decay with a half-life of approximately 5,730 years, radiocarbon dating is effective for dating samples up to around 60,000 years old. Beyond this timeframe, the concentration of carbon-14 in the sample would have decreased significantly by more than 99%.
4. Tools of Radiocarbon Dating
- In Willard Libby's era, the primary instrument for studying radioactive decay was the Geiger counter. This device comprises a Geiger-Muller tube intricately linked to electronics designed to interpret and display signals.
- The Geiger-Muller tube is equipped with a noble gas, such as helium or neon, and a central rod under a sustained high voltage. The gas, being insulating, prevents current flow between the tube's inner surface and the rod.
- When energetic particles, including gamma radiation emitted during radioactive decay, traverse the gas, they excite electrons within the gas atoms, leading to an electric discharge. This discharge, known as the Townsend discharge, can intensify if electrons knock off electrons in more atoms.
- The electric signal generated by the discharge is transmitted to the electronics. For instance, light may illuminate in response, indicating the occurrence of radioactive decay in proximity.
- Libby and his team advanced the Geiger counter's capabilities by creating the 'anti-coincidence counter.' This innovation involved surrounding the sample with Geiger counters finely tuned to disregard background radiation levels. The entire setup was enclosed in robust shielding to further eliminate background radiation interference.
- To enhance the precision of results, the team employed sample purification methods. This meticulous approach aimed to eliminate contaminants and ensure the accuracy of radiocarbon dating outcomes.
5. Modern Radiocarbon Dating
- In contemporary radiocarbon dating, the methodology has evolved into a more sophisticated setup. For instance, one of the highly sensitive dating techniques employs Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), capable of handling organic samples as minuscule as 50 mg.
- Scientists utilize conventional mass spectrometry principles to isolate ions sharing the same mass-to-charge ratio. The process involves bombarding a sample, such as a tiny bone fragment, with electrons to ionize its atoms.
- Following ionization, the ions undergo varied physical conditions that induce separation based on their mass-to-charge ratio. This separation can be achieved by energizing the ions, followed by deflection using electric or magnetic fields. Ions with distinct mass-to-charge ratios experience varying degrees of deflection.
- AMS introduces an additional layer to this setup – a particle accelerator that significantly boosts ion energy, making isotope ions of the same mass and ions with identical mass-to-charge ratios more distinguishable. This refinement allows for the isolation and examination of all carbon-14 in a sample, facilitating precise age estimation, as exemplified in dating bone fragments.
- While Geiger counters, costing a few tens of thousands of rupees, remain accessible for handheld operation, particle accelerators demand specialized training and considerable financial investment, reaching a few crore rupees. However, their utility is notably disproportionate to the investment.
- AMS has broadened its applications beyond radiocarbon dating. Geologists now leverage AMS to date rocks by assessing the relative amounts of the strontium-87 isotope. This method capitalizes on the natural decay of rubidium-87 to strontium-87, offering insights into a rock's age based on the ratio of strontium-87 to other isotopes.
6. How Radiocarbon Dating Revolutionized Science
Pioneering Objective Dating Method
Radiocarbon dating stands as the inaugural objective dating method, enabling the assignment of approximate numerical dates to organic remains. Its introduction marked a groundbreaking shift in scientific approaches.
The Radiocarbon Revolution
Termed the "radiocarbon revolution" by the American Chemical Society, its profound effects resonate notably in the fields of archaeology and geology. The revolutionary nature lies in providing researchers with a reliable means to date archaeological sites, verify the contemporaneity of discovered objects, and compare the ages of artifacts across distant locations.
Unveiling Clear and Measurable Past
By offering a clearer and measurable perspective on the past, radiocarbon dating has opened avenues for significant findings. Its impact extends to unveiling the history of human migration, the ebb and flow of civilizations, the emergence of languages and religions, the dynamics of human-animal interactions, and the fluctuations in the earth's climate.
Political Significance in India
In India, radiocarbon dating holds political significance as researchers and politicians employ its methodology to date objects recovered from temples and mosques. The technique's continual refinement addresses potential flaws and enhances its accuracy.
Challenges and Ongoing Advancements
Researchers, such as those from Cornell University in 2018, have identified deviations in the radiocarbon cycle between 1610 and 1940, impacting dating precision during this period by approximately 19 years. Ongoing advancements, such as those reported in 2020, focus on improving time resolution in radiocarbon dating, allowing dating precision to be refined from decades to specific points within a year through developments in atmospheric science.
|
For Prelims: Carbon Dating, Carbon-14
For Mains:
1. Discuss the potential future applications of radiocarbon dating and related technologies in various fields, such as environmental science or forensic science. (250 Words)
2. Explain the basic principles of radioactive decay and how carbon-14 is used as a dating tool. Discuss the assumptions underlying the radiocarbon dating method. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. Carbon dating refers to (UPTET 2022)
A. Measurement of strength of rocks
B. All of these
C. Use of carbon for writing on white board
D. Measurement of age of bones or materials in ancient sites
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements: (MPSC 2020)
a. The ratio of 14C to 12C changes continuously for dead bodies or plants.
b. Radioactive isotope Carbon-14 is used in a Carbon dating technique.
Statement (a) is true and is a reason of (b)
Both (a) and (b) are not true
(a) is true but (b) is false
(a) and (b) are not related to each other
Answers: 1-D, 2-A
|
Source: The Hindu
INDIA'S 1991 CRISIS
1. Context
S. Venkitaramanan, an IAS officer who served as the Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) from December 1990 to December 1992 passed away recently. Two events in which he had participated are worth recording. Both show him as a statesman who did his best for his country, for which he deserves to be remembered.
2. India's Balance of Payments Stress
- In the late 1990s, India grappled with a severe balance of payments stress.
- This challenging situation was triggered by a combination of factors, including a slowdown in inward remittances and a surge in oil prices following Saddam Hussain's invasion of Kuwait.
- The current account of India's balance of payments faced a double whammy - a reduction in receipts and an increase in the value of imports.
- By the fiscal year 1990-91, the current account deficit had swollen to 3% of the GDP, reaching its highest level in two decades.
- Speculations arose about the possibility of India defaulting on its external payment obligations.
- In this critical moment, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), under the leadership of Mr Venkitaramanan, played a pivotal role in addressing the crisis.
- The RBI's proactive measures included pledging the country's gold to international banks in exchange for a hard currency loan.
- The RBI's history details key initiatives taken during this period. In April 1991, the Indian government raised $200.0 million from the Union Bank of Switzerland through the sale (with a repurchase option) of 20 tonnes of gold confiscated from smugglers.
- Subsequently, in July 1991, India shipped 47 tonnes of gold to the Bank of England, raising an additional $405.0 million.
3. Economic Management and Public Perception
- While the act of pledging the country's gold was met with mockery by some in India, it was, in fact, a demonstration of economic courage and strategic management.
- Importantly, it helped India repay its international donors and creditors, though it was not a complete resolution of the crisis.
- India's heavy dependence on oil imports (constituting around 80 per cent of its total oil consumption) underscored the practical value of the RBI's decision.
- Avoiding default safeguarded India's access to global loan markets, which is crucial for financing imports, especially in the face of potential future shortfalls in export earnings.
4. RBI's Strategic Measures and Import Compression
- Before seeking international loans, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) initiated a program of economic reforms, particularly focusing on import compression.
- This strategy, primarily implemented by raising the cash margin on imports, gained significant momentum during the tenure of Governor Mr Venkitaramanan.
- Under Mr Venkitaramanan's leadership, the cash margin increased four-fold between October 1990 and April 1991.
- Supplementary measures that added to the cost of imports were also implemented. Together, these efforts constituted a stringent approach to curbing imports. This strategy proved successful, leading to a remarkable turnaround in the current account deficit.
- The impact was evident as the current account deficit peaked at 3 per cent of the GDP in 1990-91, and drastically decreased to a mere 0.3 per cent in 1991-92. This significant improvement almost eliminated the need to secure foreign exchange for financing India's non-debt payments.
- While the government led by Narasimha Rao took office in mid-1991 and implemented measures, including the devaluation of the rupee, to address the long-term balance of payments issues, the immediate improvement in the balance of payments is attributed to the import compression measures implemented by the RBI.
- The data indicates that exports did not rise significantly despite a substantial contraction in imports in 1991-92.
- According to the RBI's official history of the period, "At a critical time and in the thick of the BoP crisis, the main task of the Reserve Bank under the leadership of the Governor, Shri S. Venkitaramanan, turned out to navigate the country through the troubled waters." The crisis was declared "successfully resolved" at that time.
- Although the immediate crisis was resolved, the subsequent economic reforms led by Dr Manmohan Singh and his team garnered more public attention.
- The architects of the crisis management efforts, including Governor Venkitaramanan, were somewhat forgotten in the public sphere.
- The end of Governor Venkitaramanan's term was marred by issues related to the unexpected breakout of irregularities in securities transactions from April 1992, known to the public as "the Harshad Mehta scam."
5. LPG Reforms
The 1991 LPG (Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization) reforms in India were a set of economic policies implemented to transform the country's socialist economy into a more market-oriented and globally integrated one. These reforms were introduced against the backdrop of a severe balance of payments crisis and the need for structural adjustments to boost economic growth.
Key Aspects of the 1991 LPG Reforms
Liberalization
- Industrial De-Licensing: The government reduced restrictions on private sector participation by delicensing a significant number of industries. This move aimed to encourage competition and efficiency.
- Trade Liberalization: Import restrictions were eased, and tariffs were reduced to promote international trade. This helped in exposing domestic industries to global competition and improving efficiency.
- Financial Sector Reforms: The financial sector underwent significant changes, including the reduction of interest rate controls and the introduction of market-driven interest rates. This led to increased competition among banks and financial institutions.
Privatization
- Disinvestment: The government initiated the process of selling minority stakes in public-sector enterprises (PSUs) to private investors. This was aimed at improving the efficiency and performance of PSUs.
- Encouraging Private Sector: The private sector was encouraged to participate in sectors that were previously reserved for the public sector. This included industries like telecommunications, power, and infrastructure.
Globalization
- Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Restrictions on FDI were eased, allowing foreign companies to invest in various sectors of the Indian economy. This facilitated the inflow of foreign capital and technology.
- Integration with Global Economy: India actively engaged with the global economy, participating in international trade agreements and opening up its markets to foreign competition.
Other Reforms
- Fiscal Reforms: Measures were taken to rationalize tax structures and reduce fiscal deficits. This included the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) much later, in 2017.
- Structural Adjustments: The reforms aimed at addressing structural inefficiencies in various sectors, promoting a more competitive and market-driven economy.
6. Remarkable openness
- In recounting the experiences of interacting with Mr. Venkitaramanan, a sense of remarkable openness is highlighted. This openness was demonstrated when, in the middle of 1991, the received a letter from Mr Venkitaramanan expressing interest in an article related to the conduct of monetary policy.
- Despite the author's relative professional obscurity and the critical nature of the article, Mr Venkitaramanan extended an invitation for a personal meeting.
- In September of the same year, over 20 economists were invited to meet with Mr. Venkitaramanan. This gathering represented a diverse spectrum of opinions on the Indian economy, covering various perspectives.
- What stood out was Mr. Venkitaramanan's impressive engagement, responding to each presentation made during the meeting.
- Reports suggest that during negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Mr Venkitaramanan would adeptly counter arguments by referring to research produced by Indian economists.
- This approach likely stemmed from a belief in the importance of relying on a country's intellectual resources. Notably, he took steps to establish the Development Research Group within the RBI.
- The Development Research Group aimed to facilitate professional interaction between the RBI's staff and external stakeholders, particularly independent economists.
- While the full success of this initiative may be debated, its intention was clear to integrate diverse perspectives into the functioning of India's central bank.
- The RBI's struggle to control inflation might reflect a shift towards adhering to the prevailing economic orthodoxy rather than a deep understanding of India's unique economic dynamics.
7. The Way Forward
India's 1991 crisis was a defining moment in the country's economic history. While the immediate crisis was overcome through a combination of bold policy actions and external support, it was the subsequent economic reforms that truly transformed India's economic landscape. The lessons learned from this experience continue to be relevant today, as India strives to navigate the challenges of the 21st century.
|
For Prelims: India's 1991 crisis, RBI, IMF
For Mains:
1. Examine the economic reforms initiated post the 1991 crisis and their long-term impact on India's economic trajectory. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. An increase in the Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of the rupee.
2. An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
3. An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
Which of the above statements are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Recently, which one of the following currencies has been proposed to be added to the basket of IMF’s SDR? (UPSC 2016)
A. Rouble
B. Rand
C. Indian Rupee
D. Renminbi
3. Rapid Financing Instruments" and "Rapid Credit Facility" are related to the provisions of lending by which one of the following? (UPSC 2022)
A. Asian Development Bank
B. International Monetary Fund
C. United Nations Environment Programme
D. Finance Initiative World Bank
Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B
|
Source: The Hindu
