LIGO IN INDIA

1. Context 

2. About LIGO

• LIGO is an international network of laboratories that detect the ripples in spacetime produced by the movement of large celestial objects like stars and planets.
• These ripples were first postulated in Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity which encapsulates our current understanding of how gravitation works.
• LIGO-India will be located in the Hingoli district of Maharashtra about 450 km east of Mumbai and is scheduled to begin scientific runs in 2030.

3. Newton's law of gravitation

• Newton postulated that the force that makes any object fall to the ground was also the one that makes heavenly bodies go around in their orbits.
• Newton proposed that this was because every celestial body exerted an attractive force on every other body in the universe. 
• He worked out a mathematical formulation to calculate the strength of this attractive force which, he found, was directly proportional to the masses of the two bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• For more than two centuries, this remained the best understanding of gravitation. It could explain the motion of all celestial objects and the mathematical framework was able to produce results that matched precisely with the observations.
• Newton's law of gravitation is an integral part of elementary science education even today and its mathematics continues to be applied in a wide variety of modern-day scientific investigations with a remarkable degree of accuracy.

4. Deficiencies in Newton's law

• Its success notwithstanding, the theory suffered from a couple of major deficiencies, one of which was evident even during Newton's time.
• Newton himself acknowledged it while describing the gravitational force in his landmark publication, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1687 and his contemporaries were aware of it.
• The theory did not explain the reason for the existence of the attractive force between any two bodies. Why should every piece of matter feel attracted towards everything else?
• The second problem became apparent much later, at the start of the 20th century, as a consequence of Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity.
• Special Relativity, published in 1905, established that nothing could travel faster than the speed of light.
• But the gravitational force seemed to be propagating instantaneously, over any large distance, without any delay at all. Time does not even figure in Newton's gravitational equation.

5. General Theory of Relativity

• Ten years later, in 1915, Einstein altered our understanding of gravitation with his General Theory of Relativity. 
• He altered our understanding of gravitation with his General Theory of Relativity. He had already shown, with special Relativity, that space and time were not independent entities but had to be woven together as spacetime.
• With General Relativity, which was essentially a new theory of gravitation, Einstein took a huge leap of thought.
• He proposed that spacetime was not just a passive backdrop to the events happening in the universe. It was not a mere transparent, inert and static stage. 
• Instead, spacetime interacted with the matter and was influenced by it and in turn, itself influenced events.
• It was like a soft fabric that responds to a heavy object placed on it and curls around it.
• The curvature in spacetime so produced was the reason other smaller bodies in the vicinity felt the gravitational pull. There is no force at all.
• Gravitation is just the curvature in spacetime. Since the spacetime itself is curved around the heavier mass, other nearby objects, moving normally in straight lines in their spacetime, find themselves going around the central mass.
• The heavier the mass in the centre, the steeper and bigger the curvature in spacetime and the stronger and more extended the gravitational field.
• With one mind-bending idea, Einstein was able to explain the origin of the gravitational force and also the reason for the perpetual, near-circular, motion of all heavenly bodies.
• As physicists John Wheeler described very succinctly, matter tells spacetime how to curve and spacetime tells matter how to move.
• Also, this model of gravity does not involve instantaneous propagation of force. The experience of a pull towards the central mass happens at the speed of light.

6. Gravitational waves

• General Relativity also predicted that moving objects would generate gravitational waves in spacetime, just like a moving boat produces ripples in water.
• Because these are ripples in spacetime itself, gravitational waves have the effect of causing a temporary deformation in a body when it comes in contact.
• Since the spacetime itself elongates or contracts during the propagation of the gravitational wave, everything lying in that spacetime also goes through the same experience.
• This effect is similar to a ball being slightly squeezed along any of its diameters.
• The ball flattens a bit in the direction of pressure that is applied, while it bulges out in the perpendicular direction.
• When a gravitational wave passes the Earth, for example, the Earth gets similarly squeezed in one direction and bulges in the perpendicular direction.
• Because gravity is the weakest of all natural forces, the deforming effect of gravitational waves is extremely tiny, the reason why they could not be experimentally verified for 100 years even though many other predictions of General Relativity were tested repeatedly during this period.

7. Working of LIGO

• It is to measure these tiny effects of gravitational waves that scientists have set up the LIGO, one of the most complex pieces of scientific equipment ever built.
• The observatory comprises two 4 km long vacuum chambers, built perpendicular to each other. 
• Highly reflective mirrors are placed at the end of the vacuum chambers.
• Light rays are released simultaneously in both vacuum chambers. They hit the mirrors. get reflected and are captured back.
• In normal circumstances, the light rays in both chambers would return simultaneously.
• But when a gravitational wave arrives, one of the chambers gets a little elongated, while the other one gets squished a bit.
• In this case, light rays do not return simultaneously and there is a phase difference.
• The presence of a phase difference marks the detection of a gravitational wave.
• The precision of the measurements required to detect gravitational waves is mindboggling. At a 4 km scale, the changes in distance that light has to travel because of the gravitational wave is 10, 000 times smaller than the width of the proton and LIGO instruments are designed to pick this up.
• This is similar to measuring the distance to a neighbouring star 4.2. light years away with an accuracy smaller than the width of human hair.
• The first-ever detection of a gravitational wave happened on September 14, 2015, by the two US-based LIGO detectors.
• These gravitational waves were produced by the merger of two black holes, which were about 29 and 36 times the mass of the sun, 1.3 billion years ago.
• Black hole mergers are the source of some of the strongest gravitational waves. But even these are extremely feeble to detect. 
• Scientists checked the results for four months before announcing their results in February 2016.
• This achievement was promptly rewarded with the Nobel Prize in 2017.
  Since then, nine more gravitational wave events have been detected by the four observatories in the United States, Europe and Japan.

8. LIGO Importance to India

• LIGO India, for which the government approval was given on Thursday, would be the fifth node of this international network of gravitational wave observatories, and possibly the last.
• The instruments at these observatories are so sensitive that they can easily get influenced by events like earthquakes, Landslides or even the movement of trucks and produce a false reading. That is why multiple observatories are needed to revalidate the signals.
• The chances of two observatories, located in different geographies, producing the same false reading are negligible. But two detectors are the bare minimum.
• More is needed to tap all possible sources of gravitational waves and to improve the quality and accuracy of information.
• The LIGO website indicates that the India detector, the fifth node in the international network, could be all that is required for the time being.
• For India, LIGO is a momentous milestone. India has been an active collaborator in several international science projects.
• These include the Large Hardon Collider experiments and ITER, the effort to create a thermonuclear reactor that would enable controlled nuclear fusion reactions.
• India is also expected to be a partner country in setting up the next space station after the current International Space Station comes to the end of its life later this decade.
• However, India has not yet built a cutting-edge scientific facility on this scale on its soil, something that can have huge spin-off benefits for its science and technology sector.
• The India-based Neutrino Observatory, one such facility that has been planned in India, has been facing delays.
• LIGO, therefore, is crucial to demonstrating India's intent and capability to pull off complex science projects on its own.
  
  

CHINA'S FOREIGN POLICY

1. Context

China's National People's Congress recently adopted a new Law on Foreign Relations, which came into effect on July 1. The law aims to safeguard China's sovereignty, national security, and development interests, addressing perceived shortcomings in the existing legal system concerning foreign affairs.

 

2. Objectives and Rationale for the Law

• The new law aims to strengthen President Xi Jinping's control over foreign policy, which has become increasingly centralized since he took office in 2012.
• It seeks to give legal backing to key objectives of Chinese foreign policy, making it a punishable offence to act against these objectives.
• The law also intends to fill gaps in laws safeguarding national sovereignty, security, and development interests.

3. Emphasis on Sovereignty and Security

• The law underscores sovereignty and security as core principles of Chinese foreign policy.
• While these principles have always been important, the new law aligns with a broader political shift in China that prioritizes security over development and opening up.
• This shift may have long-term political and economic ramifications.

4. Impact on Foreign Policy Initiatives

• The law specifically mentions several initiatives championed by President Xi, including the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the Global Development Initiative (GDI), and the Global Security Initiative (GSI).
• By codifying these initiatives into law, the Chinese government aims to solidify their status and protect them from potential challenges.

5. Response to Western Sanctions

• One of the objectives of the law is to provide a legal response to Western sanctions imposed on China.
• It reinforces the Law on Countering Sanctions and essentially makes it illegal for Western companies operating in China to comply with sanctions against the country.
• This measure seeks to safeguard China's interests and counteract acts of containment, interference, sanctions, and destruction.

6. Addressing Criticisms of Foreign Lending

• The law also responds to criticisms of China's foreign lending practices, which have faced scrutiny due to debt crises in partner countries.
• It states that in providing aid, China will respect the sovereignty of recipient countries, refrain from interfering in their internal affairs, and avoid attaching political conditions to its assistance.

7. Impact on India-China Relations

• The new law's emphasis on security, sovereignty, and territorial integrity aligns with the border dispute between India and China, which has recently reemerged as a central issue in bilateral relations.
• Indian experts see the law as formalizing China's actions along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) and framing territorial disputes as matters of national sovereignty.
• This framing may limit the scope for resolution through negotiations.

8. Relevant Articles and Provisions of the Law

Article 6: Mandates all entities and individuals to safeguard China's sovereignty, national security, dignity, honour, and interests during international exchanges and cooperation.

Article 31: Ensures that the implementation and application of treaties and agreements do not undermine China's sovereignty, national security, and public interests.

Article 17: Highlights the primary objective of China's foreign relations, including upholding socialism with Chinese characteristics, safeguarding sovereignty, unification, territorial integrity, and promoting economic and social development.

Article 8: Holds organizations or individuals accountable by law for acts detrimental to China's national interests during international exchanges, without specifying what constitutes "detrimental."

Article 33: Grants the government the right to counter or take restrictive measures against acts endangering China's sovereignty, national security, and development interests in violation of international law or fundamental norms.

9. Conclusion

• China's new Law on Foreign Relations strengthens President Xi's control over foreign policy and provides a legal framework for key foreign policy objectives.
• It emphasizes sovereignty, security, and the protection of national interests.
• Its impact on India-China relations, particularly regarding the border dispute, remains to be seen.
• The law grants broad powers to the Chinese government to counter actions deemed detrimental to China's national interests, leaving room for interpretation and implementation.

 

For Prelims: China's Foreign Policy, India, sovereignty, national security, Belt and Road Initiative, the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, Line of Actual Control,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the importance of China's new Law on Foreign Relations in shaping its diplomatic and geopolitical approach and its impact on India and China's relations. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous year Questions   1. "To uphold and protect the Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity of India" is a provision made in the  (UPSC 2015) A. Preamble of the Constitution B. Directive principles of State Policy C. Fundamental Rights D. Fundamental Duties   Answer: D   2. Which one of the following best defines the term ‘State’? (UPSC 2021) 1. A community of persons permanently occupying a definite territory independent of external control and possessing an organized government 2. A politically organized people of a definite territory and possessing an authority to govern them, maintain law and order, protect their natural rights and safeguard their means of sustenance 3. A number of persons who have been living in a definite territory for a very long time with their own culture, tradition and government 4. A society permanently living in a definite territory with a central authority, an executive responsible to the central authority and an independent judiciary   Answer: 1   3. 'Belt and Road Initiative is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of  (UPSC 2016) 1. African                2. Union Brazil                     3. European Union         4. China   Answer: 4   4. LAC (Line of Actual Control) is an effective border between India and ______. (SSC CHSL 2021)  A. Pakistan        B. Bhutan           C. Sri Lanka             D. China   Answer: D   5. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020)  A. India and Pakistan B. India and Afghanistan C. India and Nepal D. India and China   Answer: D

 

Source: The Hindu

ARTEMIS ACCORDS

 

1. Context

On June 21, 2023, India became the 27th signatory to the Artemis Accords, a set of non­binding guidelines that underpin the Artemis programme, a U.S.­led project to return humans to the moon permanently.

2. Artemis Program

• It aims to establish a lunar base, deploy spacecraft, build an orbiting space station, and launch a constellation of satellites for navigation and communication.
• First crewed mission to the moon's surface expected in 2026.
• Bears similarities to the Chinese-Russian "International Lunar Research Station" plan.
• With Russia facing sanctions, China has taken the lead in the project.
• China also plans for a permanent lunar base and satellite constellation.
• Lunar exploration is seen as a symbol of national pride and a competitive element in the US-China rivalry.
• Leaders hope that the challenges of lunar exploration will drive technological innovation.
• Establishing norms and multinational collaborations in space signifies international power.
• The Artemis Accords support a US-friendly interpretation of space law.
• Member states participating in the Artemis program gain prestige and technological benefits.

3. Space Law and Agreements

• Modern space law is based on four international agreements established between 1967 and 1976.
• These agreements cover issues such as the peaceful use of space, registration, and liability.
• The Moon Agreement, introduced in 1979, was not signed by the US or the Soviet Union. India signed but did not ratify it.
• The Artemis Accords align with the principles of these agreements.
• A provision in the Artemis Accords allows for the extraction and utilization of space resources.
• This provision may contradict the Moon Agreement, which calls for the distribution of gains from commercial lunar resource exploitation.
• Despite the potential conflict, countries like Australia and France, which previously signed the Moon Agreement, have become Artemis signatories.
• The provisions of both the Accords and the Moon Agreement are vague enough for lawyers to interpret and comply with both sets of rules.
• Resource extraction in the Artemis program is expected to focus on using lunar soil for habitat construction and lunar ice for sustaining life.

4. India and the Artemis Accords

• The Artemis Accords were drafted in 2020, coinciding with India's opening of its space sector to private players.
• Initially, India's status as a signatory to the Moon Agreement may have caused hesitation.
• However, India found reassurance in the cases of Australia and France, who signed the Accords despite being Moon Agreement signatories.
• India's new space policy allows private players to engage in the mining of "space resources."
• India's diplomatic practice has shifted, as it previously preferred legally-binding instruments over informal norms.
• India's acceptance of the U.S.-led norms indicates a change in thinking.
• Deep divisions between the U.S. and China make it unlikely for them to agree on a new international law on the Moon until their ties improve.
• India-U.S. ties have been improving, leading to less hesitation in Delhi about joining an American-led international effort.

5. Financial Implications and India's Space Program

• Signing the Artemis Accords does not have immediate financial implications for India.
• To become a major player in the Artemis program, ISRO would require a significant increase in its annual budget, which is currently around ₹12,500 crore.
• ISRO's lunar exploration program, including the upcoming Chandrayaan-3 mission, is impressive but modest compared to other countries.
• India's independent human spaceflight project, Gaganyaan, may take three years or more to send humans into space.
• India needs to address domestic resistance to collaboration with other space agencies, facilitate private sector involvement in the Artemis program, and develop supportive space legislation.
• The writer of this information is a research fellow at The Takshashila Institution.

For Prelims: Artemis Programme, Lunar exploration, Takshashila Institution, Artemis Accords, Moon Agreement, International Lunar Research Station, Gaganyaan, and US-China rivalry. For Mains: 1. Discuss the implications of India signing the Artemis Accords and its impact on the country's space program and international collaboration. (250 Words)

Source: The Hindu

HUL DIWAS

1. Context 

• On June 30 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted about Hul Diwas, commemorating the sacrifice of Adivasis during the Santal rebellion.
• The Hul, also known as the Santal Revolution, was an organized war against British colonialism, led by the Santal people, who stood up against various forms of oppression.
• This rebellion began in 1855, two years before the 1857 uprising, often referred to as "the first war for Indian independence."

2. The Santals Origin and Settlement

• The Santal people, originally from modern-day Birbhum and Manbhum regions in Bengal, migrated to the present-day Santhal Pargana in Jharkhand during the late 18th century.
• The British forced their settlement in the densely forested area of Damin-i-Koh to increase revenue collection under the Permanent Settlement Act of 1790.
• However, once settled, the Santals faced severe oppression from colonial authorities, including predatory moneylenders and abusive police.

Image source: Wire

3. Reasons for the Hul Rebellion

• The social conditions leading to the rebellion were marked by extortion, oppressive extraction, forcible dispossession of property, and abuse by zamindars, police, and revenue officials.
• Usurious interest rates on loans and false measurements at markets added to the burden of the Santals.
• The Hul was sparked by talk of rebellion in tribal councils and meetings, culminating in a massive assembly of over 6,000 Santals representing 400 villages on June 30, 1855.

4. The Organized Nature of the Hul

• Contrary to the belief that the Hul was an unorganized chaotic uprising, historical evidence suggests it was a well-planned and highly organized political war against British rule.
• The Santals formed guerrillas, and military teams, appointed detectives, set up secret bases and established a network of message carriers for coordination.
• Moreover, the rebellion saw the participation of 32 communities, both tribals and non-tribals, challenging the notion of it being solely a "Santal rebellion."

5. Lesser-Known Aspects of the Hul

• The Hul saw the active involvement of women, with Phulo-Jhano leading an army of 1,000 women who provided food supplies, gathered information and attacked East Indian camps at night.
• The British army faced defeat twice during the rebellion in Pirpainti and Birbhum, exposing the notion of their invincibility.

6. British Narratives and Aftermath

• British accounts attributed the causes of the rebellion to excessive taxation, oppression by moneylenders, and corruption.
• After the Hul's suppression, tribal communities continued to resist British rule, as evidenced by the Santals' participation in the 1857 mutiny.

7. Conclusion

• Hul Diwas, celebrated on June 30 in Jharkhand, marks the beginning of the Santal rebellion against British colonial rule.
• The Hul was a highly organized and deliberate political war that saw the participation of various communities, challenging the British narrative of the rebellion.
• The Santals' struggle for autonomy and justice remains an essential part of India's history, reminding us of their resilience and determination to fight against oppression.

 

For Prelims: Hul Diwas, Santali rebellion, The first war for Indian independence, colonialism, Permanent Settlement Act of 1790, zamindars, British rule, For Mains:  1. Discuss the significance of the Santal rebellion in the context of the Indian independence movement. Explain how it challenges the notion of the 1857 uprising as the "first war for Indian independence"? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements about the Santhal Hool of 1855 - 56:  (UPSC CAPF 2016) 1. The Santhals were in a desperate situation as tribal lands were leased out 2. The Santhal rebels were treated very leniently by British officials 3. Santhal inhabited areas were eventually constituted separate administrative units called Santhal parganas 4. The Santhal rebellion was the only major rebellion in mid-19th century India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only            B.  2 and 3         C. 1, 3 and 4             D. 1 and 3 only   Answer: A   2. What was meant by 'Kherwari Hul'? (WBCS 2020) A. Chuar movement         B. Paik revolt          C. Santhal movement        D. Indigo revolt   Answer: C   3. The Permanent Settlement was introduced in __________. (West Bengal Group D 2017) A. 1790 A.D.          B. 1793 A.D.         C.  1798 A.D.            D. 1820 A.D.   Answer: B   4. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC 2019)  1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection. 2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only        B.  2 only         C. Both 1 and 2             D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D

 

Source: The Indian Express

GROUNDWATER

1. Context

The excessive extraction of groundwater for drinking and irrigation has shifted the Earth’s axis of rotation, according to a new study. Noting that humans pumped out around 2,150 gigatons of groundwater between 1993 and 2010, the study says that the planet’s axis has drifted at the rate of 4.36 cm per year towards the east.

2. Groundwater Extraction in India

• Groundwater extraction in India is a significant issue due to the high dependence on groundwater for agriculture, industry, and domestic purposes.
• India is the largest user of groundwater globally, accounting for about 25% of the total global groundwater extraction.
• Excessive groundwater pumping has led to a decline in water tables in many parts of the country, causing issues like water scarcity and depletion of aquifers.
• Agriculture accounts for the majority of groundwater usage in India, with farmers relying on tube wells and bore wells for irrigation.
• Rapid urbanization and industrialization have also contributed to increased groundwater extraction.
• Unregulated and unsustainable groundwater extraction practices have resulted in the depletion of groundwater resources and the intrusion of saline water in coastal areas.
• The government has implemented measures to regulate groundwater usage, such as promoting rainwater harvesting, encouraging efficient irrigation practices, and implementing groundwater management plans.
• The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) monitors and regulates groundwater extraction in over-exploited areas.
• Sustainable management of groundwater resources is crucial for ensuring long-term water security in India.

3. Polar Motion and Shifting Axis

• Earth's axis and poles naturally shift due to changes in mass distribution, known as "polar motion."
• Rocks circulating in Earth's mantle and other factors cause the planet's mass to shift, leading to a change in the position of the rotational axis.
• The shift of the axis can vary by several meters in a year, according to recent research.
• Human activities, including climate change, also impact polar motion.
• Climate-driven changes in water mass distribution, such as melting glaciers and ice in Greenland, can cause the axis to drift.
• Studies have shown that climate change has been causing the rotational axis to shift more than usual since the 1990s.

4. Factors Affecting Earth's Axis

• Researchers, led by Ki-Weon Seo, used 17 years of observational data and a computer model to investigate the factors influencing Earth's rotation of the axis.
• Initially, their predictions did not match the observed level of shift in previous years.
• The team considered various data, including atmospheric pressure, ocean bottom pressure, reservoirs, polar ice, glaciers, wind, currents, and groundwater.
• When groundwater effects were included, the estimated spin axis variations aligned well with observations.
• The study found that the redistribution of groundwater had the largest impact on the drift of the rotational pole.
• Groundwater extraction in North America and northwestern India, located at Earth's mid-latitudes, significantly influenced polar motion compared to extraction at the poles or equator.

5. Impact of Groundwater Extraction

• Ki-Weon Seo explained that mass changes at the equator or poles do not affect the rotational pole; instead, the rotational pole change is linked to the moment of inertia of the Earth, which is sensitive to midlatitude mass change.
• Groundwater extraction for irrigation and freshwater demands plays a significant role.
• Seo and his team confirmed that groundwater extraction contributes to global sea level rise.
• Their calculations aligned with previous research, which estimated that groundwater extraction raised global sea levels by 6.24mm between 1993 and 2010.
• The water extracted from the ground eventually finds its way into the oceans, impacting sea levels.

For Prelims: Groundwater extraction, Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA), Rapid urbanization, Polar motion, Earth's axis, Global sea level. For Mains: 1. Discuss the challenges and consequences of groundwater extraction in India. What are the key factors contributing to excessive groundwater pumping, and how does it impact water security and sustainability? (250 words).

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater. 2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B   2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. 36% of India's districts are classified as "overexploited" or "critical" by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA). 2. CGWA was formed under the Environment (Protection) Act. 3. India has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the world. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1 and 3 only Answer: B   3. Consider the following statements: 1. On the planet Earth, the freshwater available for use amounts to less than 1% of the total water found. 2. Of the total freshwater found on the planet Earth 95% is bound up in polar ice caps and glaciers. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

DEEP SEA MINING

 

 

1. Context

The International Seabed Authority — the United Nations body that regulates the world’s ocean floor — is preparing to resume negotiations that could open the international seabed for mining, including for materials critical for the green energy transition.

Years long negotiations are reaching a critical point where the authority will soon need to begin accepting mining permit applications, adding to worries over the potential impacts on sparsely researched marine ecosystems and habitats of the deep sea.

2. Deep Sea and Mining

• The deep sea is a trove of biodiversity, rich in living resources used in medicines and critical in regulating the climate and providing spawning and feeding grounds for fish
• Whether copper or nickel for batteries, cobalt for electric cars or manganese for steel production: rare earth minerals and metals are fundamental to the renewable energy
• technologies driving the world’s energy transition
• But while demand is rising fast, the resources are also becoming scarcer globally
• According to estimates, in just three years the world will need twice as much lithium and 70% more cobalt.
• And this is despite the slow progress of the energy transition. According to the International Energy Agency, if climate goals were properly pursued through the massive expansion of renewable energy, about five times as much lithium and four times as much cobalt would be needed by 2030
• The projected production volumes for these raw materials fall far short of demand. To close this gap, some countries and companies now want to mine the resources in the deep sea

3. Seabed and Minerals

• So-called polymetallic nodules, also known as manganese nodules, are driving the rush to mine seabeds
• These potato-sized lumps contain high proportions of nickel, copper, manganese, rare earths and other valuable metals
• The best-studied area is currently the seabed at between 3,500 and 5,500 meters [between 11,500 feet and 18,000 feet] in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the eastern Pacific Ocean near the US state of Hawaii
• Spanning thousands of kilometers, the area contains more nickel, manganese and cobalt than any known area on land
• The basin in the central Indian Ocean and the seabed off the Cook Islands, Kiribati atolls and French Polynesia in the South Pacific are also of interest for potential extraction
• The nodules’ composition happens to be remarkably well-aligned with the needs of electric vehicle makers
• Carmakers will need a great deal more of these metals in order to make battery cathodes and electrical connectors for an electric vehicle fleet of around a billion cars and trucks by mid-century
• The Canada-based company specializes in the medium and long-term exploitation of mineral resources in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone
• Although manganese nodules are not yet being mined anywhere in the world, that could soon change as they practically lie directly on the seabed and can be easily extracted without breaking up rock layers or eroding the seabed

4. Marine Life

• Seabed mining is made easy when a huge vacuum can simply travel over the ocean floor to suck up the nodules  which are then brought to the surface with a hose
• That means all organisms, bacteria and higher organisms that live in and on the sediment and on the nodules are completely sucked in
• These organisms also require manganese nodules to survive, meaning they “won’t come back for millions of years
• Rapid regeneration is impossible because it can take a million years for a nodule to grow a few millimeters
• Scientists and opponents of deep-sea mining also fear that the clouds of sediment from the suction could cause enormous damage to ecosystems within a radius of several hundred kilometers
• Potential victims would include plants, creatures in the middle water depths and microorganisms whose respiratory tracts could be blocked by the sediment

5. Environmental Balance

• The Metals Company aims to mine the nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, and makes no secret of the possible damage to marine biodiversity
• However, the company has argued that deep-sea mining could be less damaging to the environment than extraction on land, pointing out that it would emit 80% less greenhouse gas emissions
• The Metals Company has also claimed that deep-sea mining would be largely automated, avoiding the exploitation of cobalt miners, including children, in Congo, where most of the world’s cobalt is mined today
• Possible exploitation of deep-sea deposits is regulated by the International Seabed Authority, which was established under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
• It has awarded 31 exploration contracts so far worldwide, but none for commercial mining activities
• These permits allow companies to explore the resources and potential for future extraction, but also require them to collect data for environmental analysis
• The Pacific island state of Nauru has been collaborating with The Metals Company to force through a code by 2023 so applications can be decided. But other island nations have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining
• Deep-sea mining would go beyond harming the seabed and have a wider impact on fish populations, marine mammals and the essential function of the deep-sea ecosystems in regulating the climate

 

Source: indianexpress