HYDROGEN POWERED TRAIN
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The Integral Coach Factory (ICF) project holds strategic importance for Indian Railways, aligning with India’s broader goals to cut down greenhouse gas emissions and enhance the adoption of renewable energy sources. Using hydrogen — a much cleaner alternative to traditional fuels — is expected to help decrease reliance on fossil fuels.
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The initiative is spearheaded by the Northern Railway zone and was launched during 2020-21. It comprises two main tasks: transforming two conventional 1600 HP diesel power cars into hydrogen fuel cell-driven units, and establishing a hydrogen storage and refueling station in Jind, Haryana.
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The estimated cost of the entire project stands at around ₹136 crore. The core design work, testing, and validation are being carried out by the Research Design & Standards Organisation (RDSO) under Indian Railways.
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The train powered by hydrogen will operate between Jind and Sonepat in Haryana, covering two round trips over a stretch of 356 km. The Jind facility will be capable of storing up to 3,000 kilograms of hydrogen.
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Hydrogen-based fuel systems are still a relatively new domain for Indian Railways. Given hydrogen’s high flammability, the project faces numerous technical and safety hurdles. Each modified power car will house 220 kg of hydrogen in specially designed high-pressure (350 bar) cylinders. Ensuring the safety of these cylinders and fuel cell systems requires thorough structural testing and validation.
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As the lightest chemical element, hydrogen is invisible, has no smell or taste, and is extremely combustible. These properties necessitate strict safety protocols in its handling and usage.
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The hydrogen-powered train will be equipped with a range of safety mechanisms, including pressure relief systems, sensors for flame and gas leakage detection, temperature monitoring, and advanced ventilation designs.
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To maintain high safety standards, a German independent agency — Technischer Überwachungsverein Süd (TÜV-SÜD) — has been appointed for auditing. The engineering design and retrofitting are being carried out at ICF Chennai by Medha Servo Drives, a company based in Hyderabad.
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Hydrogen, although the most abundant element in the universe, is not found in its pure form naturally. It must be separated from compounds like water (Hâ‚‚O), which combines two hydrogen atoms with one oxygen atom. Despite being an environmentally friendly element, the extraction process requires significant energy input.
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The concept of using hydrogen as a sustainable energy source has been around for nearly a century and a half. However, it was the oil crises of the 1970s that sparked serious interest in exploring hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels.
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Hydrogen is classified based on its production methods, often referred to by color labels. The most widely produced form today is grey hydrogen, which is derived from fossil fuels without capturing the resulting emissions.
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When hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels but with carbon capture and storage technology, it is known as blue hydrogen. In contrast, green hydrogen is created through electrolysis powered by renewable energy, making it the cleanest variant.
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Green hydrogen offers specific advantages:
(i) It burns cleanly and can significantly reduce emissions across several hard-to-abate sectors such as transport, chemical manufacturing, and the iron and steel industry.
(ii) It enables the productive use of surplus renewable energy that cannot be immediately consumed or stored by the grid
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In 2023, the Union Cabinet gave its approval to the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM), acknowledging the pivotal role that green hydrogen will play in helping India achieve energy self-reliance by 2047 and reach its Net Zero emissions target by 2070.
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The mission, spearheaded by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), identifies green hydrogen as a promising emerging sector. It aims to position India as a leading global center for the production, consumption, and export of green hydrogen and its related products.
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One of the key targets under the mission is to develop the capacity to produce at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of green hydrogen annually by the year 2030
- Under the Paris Agreement of 2015, India is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 33-35% from the 2005 levels.
- It is a legally binding international treaty on climate change to limit global warming to below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels.
- At the 2021 Conference of parties in Glasgow, India reiterated its commitment to move from a fossil and import-dependent economy to a net-zero economy by 2070.
- India's average annual energy import bill is more than $100 billion.
- The increased consumption of fossil fuel has made the country a high carbon dioxide (CO2) emitter, accounting for nearly 7% of the global CO2 burden.
- To become energy independent by 2047, the government stressed the need to introduce green hydrogen as an alternative fuel that can make India the global hub and a major exporter of hydrogen.
| Characteristic | Green Hydrogen | Grey Hydrogen |
| Production Method | Electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources (solar, wind) | Steam methane reforming from natural gas |
| Environmental Impact | Virtually emissions-free, utilizing renewable energy and water as feedstock | High carbon emissions contribute to environmental degradation |
| Carbon Emissions | No carbon emissions during production or consumption | High carbon emissions during production |
| Sustainability | Represents an end-to-end green pathway for hydrogen production | Contributes significantly to carbon emissions and environmental degradation |
| Purpose | Offers a sustainable alternative to traditional hydrogen production | Predominantly used in industrial applications |
A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle operates similarly to traditional cars powered by diesel or petrol, but with a key difference: there are no carbon emissions produced during combustion.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen electrochemically by converting it into electricity through a fuel cell. This process involves storing hydrogen in a high-pressure tank and generating electricity, with water being the only byproduct. While hydrogen ICE vehicles don't emit carbon, research suggests that burning hydrogen is less energy-efficient compared to converting it into electricity in a fuel cell.
Advantages of Hydrogen FCEVs Over Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
Compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where the battery constitutes the heaviest part of the vehicle, hydrogen FCEVs are typically lighter. This is because hydrogen is a lighter element, and a fuel cell stack weighs less than an electric vehicle (EV) battery. This feature makes hydrogen fuel cell technology a promising alternative to EV battery technology, particularly for heavy-duty trucks that can benefit from increased payload capacity without emitting smoke from burning diesel.
The Promise of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology
Research indicates that long-haul FCEVs can carry freight amounts comparable to diesel trucks, whereas long-haul BEVs face a weight penalty of up to 25% due to heavier batteries. Given the imperative to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector while maintaining revenue-generating payload capacity, green hydrogen emerges as a promising solution.
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For Prelims: Green Hydrogen, compressed natural gas, Electric Vehicles, Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles, Grey Hydrogen, The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
For Mains:
1. Green hydrogen production utilizes electrolysis, a process powered by renewable energy sources. However, large-scale production of renewable energy also has environmental implications. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in promoting green hydrogen as a sustainable solution. (250 words)
2. India aspires to become a global hub for green hydrogen production and export. What are the strategic advantages India possesses to achieve this goal? Discuss the policy measures and technological advancements needed to make India a leader in this emerging field. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to 'fuel cells' in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one B. Only two C. All three D. None
Answers: 1-A, 2-C
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INDIA SEMICONDUCTOR MISSION (ISM)
- Semiconductors form the backbone of modern technology, driving critical sectors such as healthcare, transport, communication, defence, and space. With increasing digitalization and automation worldwide, they have become vital for both economic security and strategic autonomy.
- Since the launch of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) in 2021, India has rapidly advanced from vision to execution in its semiconductor roadmap.
- To accelerate this effort, the government rolled out a ₹76,000 crore Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, of which nearly ₹65,000 crore has already been allocated.
- As part of these initiatives, Prime Minister Narendra Modi will inaugurate SEMICON India 2025 on September 2 in New Delhi. Marking its fourth edition, the event will be the country’s largest, bringing together 350+ companies from 33 nations and numerous global stakeholders.
- Jointly organized by ISM under the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) and SEMI, the global semiconductor association, this event underscores India’s ambition to emerge as a global hub.
- A significant milestone was also achieved on August 28, 2025, with the launch of one of India’s first Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and Test (OSAT) Pilot Line Facilities in Sanand, Gujarat. From this facility, CG-Semi is expected to deliver the first “Made in India” chip.
- India’s push spans chip design, packaging, and fabrication, signaling its determination to achieve self-reliance. Under the Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, 23 chip design projects have been sanctioned to support startups and innovators.
- Firms like Vervesemi Microelectronics are developing advanced chips for defence, aerospace, electric vehicles, and energy solutions, highlighting India’s shift from being merely a consumer to becoming a global semiconductor creator
- The Government of India has introduced the SEMICON India Programme with an outlay of ₹76,000 crore, carried out under the framework of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM).
- SEMICON India serves as a platform that brings together global industry leaders, policymakers, academic institutions, and startups to encourage investment, facilitate dialogue, and build strategic partnerships.
- It plays a pivotal role in furthering ISM’s objectives by promoting international collaborations, driving research-to-market transitions, strengthening skill development, and highlighting India’s emerging position in the global semiconductor supply chain.
- So far, three editions of SEMICON India have been successfully organized — Bangalore (2022), Gandhinagar (2023), and Greater Noida (2024). The upcoming SEMICON India 2025 will underscore India’s evolving role in the semiconductor ecosystem worldwide.
- Over three days, the event will convene policymakers, innovators, industry leaders, academic researchers, and other stakeholders to foster collaboration and technological progress across the value chain.
- It is expected to attract strong participation from business executives, equipment manufacturers, design professionals, scientists, engineers, researchers, students, and technicians linked to the microelectronics sector
- Semiconductors are unique materials with the ability to function as both conductors and insulators, allowing them to regulate the flow of electricity—making them ideal for electronic circuits.
- When billions of these are embedded in a single chip, they enable devices to perform complex tasks such as making phone calls, capturing photos, or even guiding a spacecraft’s landing, as seen in Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander, which relied on Indian-built technology and AI.
- A semiconductor chip can be imagined as a miniature city, filled with billions of transistors—tiny switches—and countless intricate components working in harmony. From smartphones and electric vehicles to national defence systems, these chips act as the hidden engines of modern life.
- They form the backbone of contemporary technology, supporting healthcare, transportation, defence, and space exploration. With the world moving rapidly towards digitalisation and automation, semiconductors have become central to economic security and strategic autonomy.
- The global shortages witnessed during the Covid-19 pandemic and the Ukraine conflict highlighted their importance, as disruptions hit electronics manufacturing worldwide.
- Demand for smaller, faster, and more efficient chips is being driven by the growth of smart devices and artificial intelligence, which requires high-performance chips for real-time data processing.
- At present, semiconductor production is dominated by Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, China, and the US. Taiwan alone produces over 60% of the world’s chips and nearly 90% of the most advanced variants, exposing global supply chains to significant vulnerabilities.
- To counter this, countries—including India—are investing in domestic semiconductor manufacturing and working to diversify supply chains, aiming to build a more secure and resilient global ecosystem for the future
The global demand for semiconductors is rising rapidly, yet the supply chain remains highly vulnerable due to the industry being concentrated in just a few regions. This highlights the urgent need for diversified global manufacturing.
India is steadily emerging as a significant player in this space. Initiatives such as prioritizing Electronics Systems Design and Manufacturing (ESDM) under the Make in India programme, along with the India Semiconductor Mission and SEMICON India, have helped build a supportive ecosystem for the sector.
The global semiconductor market is projected to reach USD 1 trillion by 2030, with India poised to capture a notable share. The country has the potential to contribute significantly across the three main pillars of the semiconductor manufacturing supply chain:
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Equipment – Leveraging a robust MSME sector to manufacture components for semiconductor machinery.
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Materials – Utilizing India’s abundant chemicals, minerals, and specialty gases essential for semiconductor production.
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Services – Offering expertise in R&D, logistics, supply chain management, and a skilled workforce in AI, big data, cloud computing, and IoT
- Building on the rapid progress of its semiconductor journey, India is undergoing a transformative shift to emerge as a global leader in chip design, packaging, and manufacturing of Made in India chips.
- With the growing adoption of intelligent chips, the country is enhancing its packaging technologies to compete globally. In fabrication, India is transitioning from conventional silicon-based semiconductors to advanced Silicon Carbide (SiC) semiconductors, while in design, it plans to implement 3D glass packaging technology.
- Silicon Carbide offers greater stability and durability than traditional silicon, tolerating temperatures up to 2,400°C and high-voltage conditions, making it crucial for defence systems, missiles, radars, and space rockets.
- Thanks to coordinated industry efforts, India is set to roll out its first domestically made chip soon. These developments will establish India as a global hub for semiconductor design, fabrication, and manufacturing.
- The India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) supports investments in semiconductor fabrication, display manufacturing, and chip design, aiming to strengthen India’s position in the global electronics value chain.
- Guided by global experts, ISM seeks to build a robust semiconductor and display ecosystem and serves as the nodal agency for efficient implementation of related schemes.
- Currently, India has 10 approved semiconductor projects across six states, including its first commercial Silicon Carbide fabrication plant in Odisha and an advanced packaging unit introducing next-generation technologies.
- Together, these projects involve investments of ₹1.60 lakh crore, positioning India alongside global semiconductor leaders.
Key focus areas of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM):
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Establishing chip manufacturing plants (fabs)
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Developing packaging and testing facilities
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Supporting chip design startups
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Training young engineers
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Encouraging global companies to invest in India
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Develop a long-term roadmap for building sustainable semiconductor and display manufacturing facilities, along with a robust semiconductor design ecosystem in India.
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Support the creation of a secure and trusted microelectronics supply chain, covering raw materials, specialty chemicals, gases, and manufacturing equipment.
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Drive exponential growth in India’s semiconductor design sector by offering essential support such as Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools, foundry services, and other mechanisms for early-stage startups.
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Promote the generation of indigenous Intellectual Property (IP) within the semiconductor and display industry.
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Facilitate and incentivize Technology Transfer (ToT) from global and domestic sources.
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Create mechanisms to leverage economies of scale within India’s semiconductor and display industry.
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Encourage cutting-edge research in both evolutionary and revolutionary semiconductor and display technologies through grants, international collaborations, and dedicated initiatives in academia, research institutions, and industry, including the establishment of Centres of Excellence (CoEs).
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Foster collaborations and partnerships with national and international agencies, industries, and institutions to accelerate research, commercialization, and skill development
India’s ambitious semiconductor initiative, highlighted by SEMICON India 2025, marks a transformative phase in the country’s pursuit of technological self-reliance and innovation. Supported by government programs such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, significant financial investments, and strategic allocation of resources, India is building a comprehensive semiconductor ecosystem. This approach not only ensures prudent investment but also strengthens the foundation for a resilient semiconductor industry capable of powering sectors from electronics to automobiles.
Beyond just chips, SEMICON India 2025 symbolizes India’s drive toward self-sufficiency, innovation, and global leadership. By promoting “Designed and Made in India” technologies, the event underscores the country’s ambition to shape the future of the global semiconductor landscape and position itself as a key player in this critical strategic sector
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For Prelims: Semiconductor, Transistors, Fabrication Technology
For Mains:
1. Discuss the recent global chip shortage and its implications for India's semiconductor industry. What steps has India taken to enhance its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which of the following fabrication techniques is ideally suited for digital ICs?
(KVS TGT WET 2017)
A. Monolithic B. Thin film C. Hybrid D. Thin film and hybrid
Answer: A
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FLASH FLOODS
2. What is a Flood
- Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
- Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
- Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break.
- Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.
- Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer.
- Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.
3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.
These factors include -
- Meteorological factors
- Physical factors
- Human factors
3.1 Meteorological Factors
The natural causes of floods are discussed below -
- Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
- Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
- Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
- Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
- Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
- Cyclone & Heavy rainfall
3.2. Physical Factors.
- Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
- Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.
3.3. Human Factor
- Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
- Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood.
- Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
- Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
- Unplanned Development
- Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
4.Types of Flood
- Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
- Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
- River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
- Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
- Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences.
- Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
- Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
- Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
- Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
- Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:
- Attempts to modify the flood
- Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
- Attempts to modify the loss burden
- Bearing the loss.
- The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.
6.1 Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
- Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
- Dams and reservoirs
- Natural detention basins
- Channel improvement
- Drainage improvement
- Diversion of flood waters.
6.2 Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
- Flood forecasting and warning
- Floodplain zoning
- Flood fighting
- Floodproofing
- Flood insurance.
7.What are Flash Floods
- Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed.
- Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time.
- They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
8. Status of Floods in India
8.1 NDRF Report
- 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
- On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.
8.2 Statistics
- Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
- 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.
9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?
- Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
- Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land.
- Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream.
- Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly.
- Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding.
- Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
- Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
- Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
- Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.
10. The impact of floods in India
11. Impact of flood on wildlife
12. Government actions regarding flood management
12.1.The National Flood Management Commission
- Launched in 1954
- Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
- To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
- It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
- It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
- It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.
12.4.National Water Policy, 2002
- It recommended
- Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
- Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
- More emphasis on non-structural measures.
- Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.
12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were
- Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
- In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
- Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
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For Prelims: Cloudbursts, flash floods, landslides, Cumulonimbus Clouds, Water Vapour, Floodplain Zoning, Green Infrastructure.
For Mains: 1. What is a cloudburst, and how does it differ from regular rainfall? Explain the causes and meteorological factors that contribute to the occurrence of a cloudburst.
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Previous year Questions1. Which of the following statements with regard to Cloudburst is/are correct? (UPSC CDS 2017)
1. It is defined as sudden localized very heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning.
2. It mostly occurs in the hilly areas.
3. It results in a very high intensity of rainfall, i.e., 250 mm-300 mm in a couple of hours.
4. It occurs only during the daytime.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 3 and 4
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 2 only
Answer: A
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INDUS WATER TREATY
1. Context
2. Is unilateral suspension permissible?
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The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) cannot be modified or terminated by one country alone. Article XII explicitly states that the agreement may only be ended through a "duly ratified treaty" mutually accepted by both India and Pakistan.
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India’s reference to placing the treaty “in abeyance” in its communication with Pakistan lacks legal grounding, as international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 1969—which serves as the foundational framework for international agreements—do not recognize this term.
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Under Article 62 of the VCLT, a treaty may be withdrawn from if there has been a “fundamental change of circumstances” compared to when it was first signed.
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Although India is not a signatory and Pakistan has signed but not ratified the VCLT, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its ruling on the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, recognized Article 62 as part of customary international law—making it applicable even without formal ratification.
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India appears to be appealing to this legal doctrine in its letter, which emphasized that a “fundamental change in circumstances” warrants a reassessment of its commitments under the IWT.
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For instance, in the 1997 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros case involving Hungary and Slovakia’s dam project, Hungary claimed that evolving political and economic conditions, along with potential environmental risks, justified ending the treaty.
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The ICJ dismissed these claims, asserting that the cited changes were not directly tied to the treaty’s central goal of cooperative energy generation
3.How will this have effect on Pakistan?
- Over 80% of Pakistan’s agricultural activities and nearly one-third of its hydropower production rely on the Indus basin's water resources.
- Despite this heavy dependence, analysts point out that India does not have the extensive water storage facilities or a widespread canal network necessary to retain the vast volumes—tens of billions of cubic metres—of water from the western rivers.
- India’s existing infrastructure primarily comprises run-of-the-river hydropower projects, which are not designed for significant water storage.
- Nevertheless, the primary concern lies in the unpredictability of water flows, which poses a serious threat to Pakistan’s largely agriculture-based economy
4. Applications moved by Pakistan and India earlier
- The World Bank, the third party to the Treaty and the acknowledged arbiter of disputes were, meanwhile faced with a unique situation of having received two separate requests for the same dispute.
- New Delhi feels that the World Bank is just a facilitator and has a limited role.
- On December 12, 2016, the World Bank announced a "pause" in the separate processes initiated by India and Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty to allow the two countries to consider alternative ways to resolve their disagreements.
- The regular meetings of Indus Waters Commissioners resumed in 2017 and India tried to use these to find mutually agreeable solutions between 2017 and 2022.
- Pakistan refused to discuss these issues at these meetings.
- At Pakistan's continued insistence, the World Bank, in March last year, initiated actions on the requests of both India and Pakistan.
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On March 31, 2022, the World Bank decided to resume the process of appointing a Neutral Expert and a Chairman for the Court of Arbitration.
In October last year, the Bank named Michel Lino as the Neutral Expert and Prof. Sean Murphy as Chairman of the Court of Arbitration.
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- They will carry out their duties in their capacity as subject matter experts and independently of any other appointments they may currently hold.
- On October 19, 2022, the Ministry of External Affairs said, " We have noted the World Bank's announcement to concurrently appoint a Neutral Expert and a Chair of the Court of Arbitration in the ongoing matter related to the Kishanganga and Ratle projects".
- Recognising the World Bank's admission in its announcement that "carrying out two processes concurrently poses practical and legal challenges".
- India would assess the matter that "India believes that the implementation of the Indus Water Treaty must be in the letter and spirit of the Treaty".
- Such parallel consideration of the same issues is not provided for in any provisions of the Treaty and India has been repeatedly citing the possibility of the two processes delivering contradictory rulings, which could lead to an unprecedented and legally untenable situation, which is unforeseen in Treaty provisions.
5. Dispute redressal mechanism
- The dispute redressal mechanism provided under Article IX of the IWT is graded.
- It's a 3-level mechanism.
- So, whenever India plans to start a project, under the Indus Water Treaty, it has to inform Pakistan that it is planning to build a project.
- Pakistan might oppose it and ask for more details. That would mean there is a question and in case there is a question, that question has to be clarified between the two sides at the level of the Indus Commissioners.
- If that difference is not resolved by them, then the level is raised. The question then becomes a difference.
- That difference is to be resolved by another set mechanism, which is the Natural Expert.
- It is at this stage that the World Bank comes into the picture.
- In case the Neutral Expert says that they are not able to resolve the difference or that the issue needs an interpretation of the Treaty, then that difference becomes a dispute.
It then goes to the third stage the Court of Arbitration. - To Sum up, it's a very graded and sequential mechanism first Commissioner, then the Neutral Expert and only then the Court of Arbitration.
6. India's notice and its implications
- While the immediate provocation for the modification is to address the issue of two parallel mechanisms, at this point, the implications of India's notice for modifying the treaty are not very clear.
- Article XII (3) of the Treaty that India has invoked is not a dispute redressal mechanism.
- It is in effect, a provision to amend the Treaty.
- However, an amendment or modification can happen only through a "duly ratified Treaty concluded for that purpose between the two governments".
- Pakistan is under no obligation to agree to India's proposal.
- As of now, it is not clear what happens if Pakistan does not respond to India's notice within 90 days.
| The next provision in the Treaty, Article XII (4), provides for the termination of the Treaty through a similar process " a duly ratified Treaty concluded for that the purpose between the two governments". |
- India has not spelt out exactly what it wants to be modified in the Treaty.
- But over the last few years, especially since the Uri attack, there has been a growing demand in India to use the Indus Waters Treaty as a strategic tool, considering that India has the natural advantage of being the upper riparian state.
- India has not fully utilized its rights over the waters of the three east-flowing rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej over which India has full control under the Treaty.
It has also not adequately utilized the limited rights over the three west-flowing rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum which are meant for Pakistan. - Following the Uri attack, India established a high-level task force to exploit the full potential of the Indus Waters Treaty.
- Accordingly, India has been working to start several big and small hydroelectric projects that had either been stalled or were in the planning stages.
- A river system consists of a river and all its tributaries. The Indus River system is made up of six rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Among these, the Indus and Sutlej are antecedent rivers, meaning they existed before the formation of the Himalayas and carved deep gorges as they flowed from the Tibet region. The remaining four rivers—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas—originate in India.
- The Indus Basin stretches across four countries: China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. In India, it covers the Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir, as well as Chandigarh, and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. The total drainage area of the basin is about 3,21,289 square kilometers, representing roughly 9.8% of India’s total geographical area.
- The Indus River originates from the trans-Himalayan range near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet, known as Singi Khamban or the Lion’s Mouth. Flowing west, it enters India at Demchok in Ladakh.
- Within India, the river runs for about 1,114 kilometers, flowing between the Ladakh and Karakoram ranges. Its main right bank tributaries include the Shyok (originating from Rimo Glacier), Shigar, and Gilgit, while the Zaskar and Hanle rivers are its left bank tributaries. The Indus River travels a total of 2,880 kilometers, eventually emptying into the Arabian Sea near Karachi, Pakistan. The Indus River Dolphin, listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), primarily inhabits the Indus.
- The Jhelum River (252 km) begins at Verinag near the Pir Panjal in India, flowing through Wular Lake in Srinagar before entering Pakistan, where it merges with the Chenab near Jhang. The Chenab River, the Indus’s largest tributary, is 1,180 km long within India and originates from the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi in Keylong, Himachal Pradesh.
- The Ravi River (95 km) starts from the Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh and joins the Chenab at Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan. The Beas River (354 km) originates from Beas Kund, located at 4,000 meters above sea level near Rohtang Pass. It flows through the Kullu Valley and joins the Sutlej near Harike in Punjab, India. The Harike Barrage, built in 1952, diverts water for the Indira Gandhi Canal system.
- The Sutlej River (676 km) is another antecedent river, originating from Rakas Tal (4,555 meters above sea level) near Mansarovar in Tibet. It enters India near Ropar. India has built several important dams to harness the waters of the eastern rivers, including the Ranjit Sagar Dam on the Ravi, the Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej, and the Pong and Pandoh Dams on the Beas. These projects, including the Beas-Sutlej Link, the Madhopur-Beas Link, and the Indira Gandhi Canal Project, allow India to utilize nearly 95% of the waters of these eastern rivers.
8. Way Forward
However, India’s projects on the western rivers have been a source of dispute with Pakistan. Significant projects on the western rivers, such as the Salal Dam, the Baglihar Hydropower Project, the Pakal Dul Project, and the Kiru Project, are located on the Chenab River, while the Tulbul Project is situated on the Jhelum River in Jammu and Kashmir. These projects have been at the center of objections from Pakistan over the year
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Indus water treaty, World Bank, India and Pakistan, Ravi, Jhelum, Sutlej, Beas, Chennab, Court of Arbitration, Uri attack, Neutral Expert, hydel projects,
For Mains:
1. What is Indus Water Treaty and discuss India's recent notice and its implications (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus directly. Among the following, which one is such a river that joins the Indus direct? (2021) (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutle 2.Consider the following pairs (2019)
Answer (d) Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5 Answer (a) Mains 1.The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. (2020) |
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
1. Context
2. Consumer Price Index
- The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
3. Wholesale Price Index
- The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services at the wholesale level.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the WPI inflation rate.
- The WPI is calculated for 67 groups of commodities, which are further divided into 225 subgroups.
- The weights of each group and subgroup in the WPI are determined by the value of the goods and services produced in each group and subgroup.
- The WPI inflation rate is an important indicator of inflation at the wholesale level.
- It is used by businesses to make pricing decisions and by the government to set monetary policy.
4. Findings of the Report
4.1. Food inflation
- Food inflation in India remained high in August, at 9.94%. This was driven by rising prices of essential food items, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, and oils.
- Eleven of the 12 items on the heavyweight food and beverages group of the CPI logged price increases, with oils and fats, the sole item logging a year-on-year decline in prices, posting its first sequential increase in nine months.
- Vegetables provided some relief, with tomatoes leading an appreciable month-on-month deflation of 5.88% in the 19-member basket.
- However, the cooking staples of potatoes and onions were among the seven items that continued to log sequential inflation (2.3% and 12.3%, respectively).
4.2. Monsoon deficit and rising crude oil prices
- The near-term inflation outlook is also made more uncertain by other factors, including a distinct deficit in monsoon rainfall.
- Besides the overall 10% shortfall, sharp regional and temporal anomalies in rain distribution have impacted either the sowing or the quality of produce of several farm items.
- Kharif's sowing of pulses had, as of September 8, recorded an 8.6% shortfall compared with the year-earlier period.
- Another inflation driver, crude oil, has also seen a steady rise in prices as the output cuts by major oil producers of the OPEC+ grouping start to bite.
- The price of India's crude basket had, as of September 12, climbed 7.2% from the average in August to $92.65/barrel, according to official data.
4.3. RBI measures to control inflation
- For the RBI, the latest inflation data further roils its interest rate calculus.
- Unless CPI inflation decelerates by an incredible 250 basis points in September to a 4.33% pace, price gains are certain to substantially overshoot the monetary authority's 6.2% forecast for the July-September quarter, leaving it with few real options to achieve its medium-term price stability goal of 4% inflation.
- As the RBI has been at pains to stress, failure to anchor inflation expectations risks hurting growth.
5. About the sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- The sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a subset of the CPI that includes goods and services that change prices relatively infrequently.
- These goods and services are thought to incorporate expectations about future inflation to a greater degree than prices that change more frequently.
- Some of the items included in the sticky CPI are Rent, Housing costs, Utilities, Education, Healthcare, Transportation, Household furnishings and appliances, Personal insurance, Recreation, and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The sticky CPI is often used by economists to measure inflation expectations.
- This is because prices of sticky goods and services are less likely to be affected by short-term changes in supply and demand, and are therefore more likely to reflect changes in inflation expectations.
- The sticky CPI is also used by central banks to set monetary policy.
- This is because the central bank wants to make sure that inflation expectations are anchored at a low level.
- If inflation expectations start to rise, the central bank may raise interest rates to bring them back down.
6. How India’s retail inflation is measured?
- India's retail inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), a basket of goods and services commonly purchased by urban households.
- The CPI is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every month.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular month to those of the same in a base month.
- The base month is usually the previous year's corresponding month. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services, Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living in India.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
7. Calculation of Inflation
- Inflation is the rate at which the prices of goods and services increase over time.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to the prices of the same basket of goods and services in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the inflation rate.
There are two main ways to calculate inflation
The CPI is calculated by the following formula:
CPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services in current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services in base period) * 100
The PPI is calculated by the following formula:
PPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the base period) * 100
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For Prelims: Consumer Price Index, Wholesale Price Index, Inflation, retail inflation, Producer Pirce Index, National Statistical Office, OPEC+, Crude oil, Kharif season, Monsoon,
For Mains:
1. Analyse the factors contributing to high food inflation in India in recent months. Discuss the impact of high food inflation on the Indian economy and suggest measures to mitigate it. (250 words)
2. Explain the concept of sticky inflation. What are the various factors that contribute to sticky inflation? Discuss the implications of sticky inflation for the Indian economy. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
Answer: C
2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only.
2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does.
3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
4. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)
A. Evolved B. Transformed C. Tested D. Targeted
Answer: D
6. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)
A. 35 kg B. 40 kg C. 30 kg D. 25 kg E. 50 kg
Answer: A
7. As per the the National Statistical Office (NSO) report released on 7 January 2022, India's Gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to grow at ___________ per cent (in first advance estimates) in the fiscal year 2021-22? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 17.6 per cent B. 9.5 per cent C. 11 per cent D. 9.2 per cent E. None of the above
Answer: D
8. The main emphasis of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is on which of the following? (UKPSC 2016)
A. The production of petroleum
B. Control over prices of petroleum
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of the above
Answer: C
9. In the context of global oil prices, "Brent crude oil" is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC 2011)
1. It is a major classification of crude oil.
2. It is sourced from the North Sea.
3. It does not contain sulfur.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
10. The term 'West Texas Intermediate', sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC 2020)
A. Crude oil B. Bullion C. Rare earth elements D. Uranium
Answer: C
11. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A
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