• An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) is a long-range missile system designed to deliver nuclear or conventional warheads over very long distances. These missiles are capable of traveling thousands of kilometers, typically between continents, hence the term "intercontinental."
• ICBMs are one of the key components of a country's strategic nuclear arsenal and serve as a deterrent against potential adversaries. They are designed to be launched from land-based silos, mobile platforms, or submarines and can travel at high speeds, often reaching hypersonic velocities during their flight trajectory.
• The basic components of an ICBM system include the missile itself, the launch platform, and a guidance system to ensure precise targeting.
• Once launched, the missile follows a ballistic trajectory, which means it travels into space, then reenters the Earth's atmosphere to reach its target. The accuracy and reliability of ICBMs are of paramount importance in their role as a deterrent.
• ICBMs have been a significant part of the nuclear arms race during the Cold War, with the United States and the Soviet Union (and later Russia) developing extensive arsenals of these missiles. Other countries, such as China, France, and the United Kingdom, have also developed their own ICBMs.
• The possession of ICBMs provides a nation with the capability to strike targets on the other side of the globe, making them a critical element in the calculus of international security and arms control.

• A missile is a general term used for any guided weapon that is launched toward a target. Think of it as a broad family of weapons that includes many different types, such as air-to-air missiles, surface-to-air missiles, cruise missiles, anti-ship missiles, and ballistic missiles.
• What makes a missile different from an ordinary rocket or artillery shell is that it has some form of guidance system that helps it reach its target accurately.
• A ballistic missile, on the other hand, is a specific type of missile that follows a unique method of flight. After launch, powerful rocket engines propel it upward at very high speed.
• Once the fuel is exhausted, the engines stop working, and the missile continues its journey mainly under the influence of gravity, following a curved path known as a ballistic trajectory.
• This trajectory is similar to the path followed by a cricket ball thrown into the air, except that a ballistic missile travels much farther and much faster, often reaching the edge of space before descending toward its target.
• To understand the difference more clearly, imagine two ways of traveling from one city to another. In the first method, an aircraft keeps its engine running throughout the journey and can change direction whenever needed.
• This is similar to a cruise missile, which remains powered during most of its flight and continuously adjusts its course. In the second method, a projectile is launched with tremendous force, rises high into the sky, and then falls toward its destination along a predetermined path. This resembles a ballistic missile.
• For example, India's BrahMos is a cruise missile. It flies relatively low, remains powered during flight, and can maneuver to avoid detection. In contrast, Agni-V is a ballistic missile.
• It is launched vertically, climbs to a very high altitude, and then re-enters the atmosphere at extremely high speed before striking its target.
• Therefore, the relationship between the two is simple: a ballistic missile is a type of missile, but not all missiles are ballistic missiles. The key distinction lies in how they travel.
• Ordinary missiles may remain powered and guided throughout their flight, whereas ballistic missiles are powered mainly during the initial launch phase and then follow a gravity-driven ballistic path for most of their journey

Some of the countries known to have ICBMs include:

United States: The United States operates a variety of ICBMs, including the Minuteman III, which is a land-based ICBM, and the Trident II D5, which is a sea-launched ICBM.

Russia: Russia's Strategic Rocket Forces operate a range of ICBMs, including the RS-24 Yars, RS-12M Topol, and RS-28 Sarmat (nicknamed Satan 2).

China: China has developed and deployed ICBMs such as the DF-5, DF-31, and DF-41.

France: France has the M51 SLBM (Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile) as part of its nuclear deterrent.

United Kingdom: The United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent is based on the Trident II D5 SLBM.

India: India's Agni-V is considered an ICBM, with the ability to reach intercontinental distances.

Pakistan: Pakistan has developed the Shaheen-III missile, which is capable of reaching intercontinental distances.

North Korea: North Korea has claimed to possess ICBMs, with the Hwasong-15 being one of their most advanced and longest-range missiles.

Israel: Israel has not officially confirmed the possession of ICBMs, but it is widely believed to have developed such capabilities as part of its nuclear deterrent.

5.Cruise Missiles and Ballistic Missiles: How Are They Different?

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements : (UPSC CSE 2023) 1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

 

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

STRAIT OF HORMUZ

 

 

1. Context

 

US President Donald Trump has reversed course on his plan to charge a 20% fee to facilitate the safe passage of commercial vessels through the the Strait of Hormuz.

 

2. What is the Strait of Hormuz?

 

• The Strait of Hormuz is a strategically significant and narrow maritime passage situated between Iran and Oman, serving as a link between the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has labeled it as the world’s most vital oil transit chokepoint, through which nearly 20% of global liquid petroleum fuels and a substantial portion of LNG trade pass. In May, more than 45% of India’s crude oil imports were estimated to have transited through this strait. Given that India is the third-largest consumer of crude oil globally and imports over 85% of its oil needs, the strait plays a crucial role in its energy security.

• Data from the commodity analytics firm Kpler indicates that, as of June, India has been importing over 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) of crude oil from Russia, which constitutes more than 41% of its total oil imports.

• While oil imports from the U.S. have shown a steady rise, supplies from West Asian nations such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait have remained relatively consistent. Many of these shipments were likely planned prior to the recent escalation in tensions between Israel and Iran, and therefore, may not reflect the impact of the current geopolitical developments.

• Over the past two to three years, India has notably adjusted its oil import strategy. Russia has emerged as India’s top crude supplier, overtaking traditional exporters from West Asia. Importantly, Russian oil bypasses the Strait of Hormuz, as it is mainly transported via alternative sea routes like the Suez Canal and Red Sea, and sometimes through the Cape of Good Hope or Pacific Ocean routes.

3.Why is Strait of Hormuz Critical?

 

• The Strait of Hormuz is commonly considered the most critical maritime chokepoint in the world. It links the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean, serving as a major export corridor for regional oil producers.
• At its narrowest point, it measures only about 21 nautical miles (38 km) across. Under typical conditions, nearly 21 million barrels of oil—around one-fifth of global consumption—flow through it daily.
• Alongside crude oil, substantial quantities of liquefied natural gas from Qatar and the UAE are transported via this passage.
• A significant share, close to 80%, is destined for Asian markets, making countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea heavily reliant on this route.

 

4. Other Major Global Chokepoints

 

• Apart from Hormuz, international trade depends on a few other strategically vital maritime passages, including the Strait of Malacca, Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Suez Canal, and Panama Canal.
• The Strait of Malacca lies between the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia’s Sumatra island and represents the shortest maritime route connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. This makes it indispensable for trade flows linking West Asia, Africa, and East Asia.
• The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is positioned between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa.
• It serves as the southern entrance to the Red Sea, a necessary transit point for vessels heading toward the Suez Canal and onward to the Mediterranean, thereby forming a crucial segment of Asia–Europe trade routes.
• The Suez Canal, a man-made channel across Egypt, connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, significantly reducing travel time by eliminating the need to circumnavigate Africa.
• Further west, the Panama Canal cuts through the Isthmus of Panama, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strategic shortcut facilitates trade between Asia, the Americas, and Europe, removing the necessity of sailing around South America

 

5. Why is the Strait of Hormuz strategically important for India?

 

• India’s current oil procurement approach already demonstrates a diversified and risk-mitigated strategy, especially in light of uncertainties in West Asian oil routes, with Russian crude now making up the largest share of India’s import basket.

• After recent U.S. air strikes targeting Iranian nuclear sites, Iran’s parliament passed a resolution on Sunday advocating the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital corridor for global oil transportation. The final decision on this move now lies with Iran’s Supreme National Security Council.

• Although Iran has repeatedly issued threats in the past to shut the strait, it has never acted on them. Even in the present context, industry analysts consider the likelihood of an actual blockade to be low. Nevertheless, the increased risk perception surrounding the potential closure is expected to trigger global alarm, including in India, by raising concerns over the security of oil and gas supplies and potentially driving up global energy prices.

 

6. How does the Israel-Iran conflict pose a threat to global oil and gas flows?

 

 

• The Israel-Iran conflict poses a significant threat to global oil and gas flows due to the geopolitical sensitivity and strategic location of the region. At the heart of this issue lies the Strait of Hormuz—a narrow but crucial maritime passage through which nearly 20% of the world’s petroleum and a substantial share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are transported.
• Iran borders this strait and has, over the years, repeatedly threatened to block it during periods of heightened tension, including in response to military actions or sanctions.
• When hostilities between Israel and Iran escalate—such as through air strikes, proxy conflicts, or cyber warfare—it increases the likelihood of retaliation from Iran that could involve disrupting maritime traffic in the Strait of Hormuz.
• Even if Iran does not fully close the strait, the mere threat or perception of such an action is enough to cause volatility in global energy markets. Tanker insurance rates rise, shipping routes are reconsidered, and countries heavily dependent on oil imports, like India, become increasingly vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks.
• Furthermore, any military conflict in this region risks damaging key infrastructure such as refineries, pipelines, or export terminals in the broader West Asian region.
• This would constrain oil production and distribution, affecting both the availability and price of crude oil and gas worldwide. Global markets respond quickly to these risks, often resulting in immediate spikes in prices due to concerns over supply security.
• In summary, the Israel-Iran conflict amplifies the risk to global oil and gas flows by potentially destabilizing a region that is central to global energy supply chains. It heightens fears of supply disruptions, increases market speculation, and threatens the economic stability of energy-importing countries, making it a matter of both geopolitical and economic concern

7. Way Forward

 

The flow of vessels through major international chokepoints is largely regulated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. According to its provisions, straits that are used for global navigation fall under the concept of “transit passage,” which permits ships and aircraft from all countries to move through them freely, continuously, and without interference.

At the same time, coastal states bordering these straits are allowed to introduce regulations related to safety or environmental protection. However, they are not permitted to block passage or apply discriminatory restrictions on specific vessels. While this freedom of navigation is widely accepted in international law, its practical implementation often depends on the naval capabilities of states and the level of cooperation among them

 

 

For Prelims: Strait of Hormuz,  Persian Gulf, Energy Information Administration (EIA), liquefied natural gas (LNG)   For Mains: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Malacca Strait (b) Bering Strait (c) Strait of Florida (d) Strait of Gibraltar Answer (b) The International Date Line (IDL) roughly follows the 180° longitude, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, deviating slightly to accommodate international boundaries. The Bering Strait lies between Russia and Alaska, and it is very close to the 180° meridian, making it the closest strait to the International Date Line. Here's why the other options are incorrect: Malacca Strait – Lies between Malaysia and Indonesia, far west of the IDL. Strait of Florida – Lies between the U.S. (Florida) and Cuba, in the Atlantic Ocean. Strait of Gibraltar – Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, between Spain and Morocco, far from the IDL.

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

 

LINE OF ACTUAL CONTROL (LAC)

 

 

1.Context

Residents of villages along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Ladakh told a parliamentary panel visiting the Union Territory that they had lost access to their traditional grazing grounds following the border tensions with China in 2020

Pic credits: TRT WORLD

 

2.About Line of Actual Control (LAC)

• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the de facto boundary that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. Unlike a formally demarcated international border, it is not clearly marked on the ground or mutually agreed upon in precise terms by both countries. The concept of the LAC emerged after the 1962 India-China war, when hostilities ended without a final settlement of the border dispute.
• Stretching for about 3,488 kilometers, the LAC runs through three main sectors: the western sector in Ladakh, the middle sector covering parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and the eastern sector that spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
• Each side has its own perception of where the LAC lies, which often leads to overlapping claims and occasional standoffs between Indian and Chinese troops. The absence of a mutually recognized border has made this line one of the most sensitive and contested frontiers in the world.
• Over the years, both countries have signed various agreements to maintain peace and tranquillity along the LAC, emphasizing restraint and confidence-building measures. However, due to differing interpretations of the line, confrontations and incursions have continued to occur.
• The recent clashes, particularly in eastern Ladakh in 2020, highlighted the fragile nature of the arrangement and the pressing need for a clearer understanding between the two sides.
• Thus, the LAC represents more than just a boundary; it is a reflection of unresolved historical disputes and ongoing geopolitical tensions. While it serves as the working line that separates the territories under Indian and Chinese control, its ambiguous character keeps it at the center of India-China relations

It is divided into three sectors:

 

The eastern sector which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, The middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and the western sector in Ladakh

 

3.The disagreement

• The alignment of the LAC in the eastern sector is along the 1914 McMahon Line, and there are minor disputes about the positions on the ground as per the principle of the high Himalayan watershed
• This pertains to India’s international boundary as well, but for certain areas such as Longju and Asaphila
• The line in the middle sector is the least controversial but for the precise alignment to be followed in the Barahoti plains.
• The major disagreements are in the western sector where the LAC emerged from two letters written by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai to PM Jawaharlal Nehru in 1959, after he had first mentioned such a ‘line’ in 1956.
• In his letter, Zhou said the LAC consisted of “the so-called McMahon Line in the east and the line up to which each side exercises actual control in the west”
• After the 1962 War, the Chinese claimed they had withdrawn to 20 km behind the LAC of November 1959
• During the Doklam crisis in 2017, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson urged India to abide by the “1959 LAC”
• India rejected the concept of LAC in both 1959 and 1962. Even during the war, Nehru was unequivocal: “There is no sense or meaning in the Chinese offer to withdraw twenty kilometres from what they call ‘line of actual control’

4.India's agreement to LAC

• LAC was discussed during Chinese Premier Li Peng’s 1991 visit to India, where PM P V Narasimha Rao and Li reached an understanding to maintain peace and tranquillity at the LAC. 
• India formally accepted the concept of the LAC when Rao paid a return visit to Beijing in 1993 and the two sides signed the Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquillity at the LAC
• The reference to the LAC was unqualified to make it clear that it was not referring to the LAC of 1959 or 1962 but to the LAC at the time when the agreement was signed
• To reconcile the differences about some areas, the two countries agreed that the Joint Working Group on the border issue would take up the task of clarifying the alignment of the LAC

5. How is the LAC different from the Line of Control with Pakistan?

• The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement.
• The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground.
• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) between India and China and the Line of Control (LoC) between India and Pakistan are both contested frontiers, but they differ fundamentally in their origin, status, and legal recognition.
• The LAC is not an internationally agreed boundary; it is simply the line that separates the territories controlled by India and China after the 1962 war. It came into existence informally as the ground reality of troop positions after hostilities, and while both countries recognize its existence, they do not agree on its precise alignment.
• This makes the LAC fluid and ambiguous, often leading to different interpretations and military face-offs. It is essentially a de facto line, with no official international recognition or treaty-based acceptance.
• In contrast, the LoC is a formally delineated line that divides the territories of India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir. It originated from the ceasefire line drawn after the first India-Pakistan war of 1947–48, and was given its current name under the 1972 Simla Agreement.
• Unlike the LAC, the LoC is demarcated on maps, jointly surveyed, and broadly agreed upon by both sides, even though the underlying sovereignty dispute over Jammu and Kashmir remains unresolved.
• The LoC is under constant military monitoring, heavily fortified, and frequently the site of ceasefire violations, but it has legal standing as part of an international agreement.
• To put it simply, the LAC is undefined and disputed in interpretation, while the LoC is defined and agreed upon, though still contested in terms of territorial claims. The LAC reflects ambiguity and lack of settlement between India and China, whereas the LoC represents a ceasefire line formally negotiated between India and Pakistan

 

6. Way Forward

The two leaders met on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit here — this is Modi’s first visit to China in seven years. The two sides agreed on a “fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable resolution” of the border issue, and flagged the importance of a multipolar world, free trade and “role of their two economies to stabilise world trade

 

For Prelims: LAC, LOC For Mains: 1.What is this ‘line of control’? Is this the line China have created by aggression. Comment 2.What we know about the clash between Indian and Chinese soldiers in Arunachal Pradesh

 

Previous Year Questions 1.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates  (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020) A.India and Pakistan B.India and Afghanistan C.India and Nepal D.India and China Answer (D) 2.LAC (Line of Actual Control) is an effective border between India and ______. (SSC CHSL 2020) A.Pakistan B.Bhutan C.Sri Lanka D.China Answer (D)

 

 

 

Source:indianexpress