India–China Border Dispute: A Historical Overview

Colonial Legacy and Early Disagreements

• India’s boundary with China has its roots in the territorial divisions created by the British and the Manchu empires. Since the region lay across the remote and sparsely populated Himalayas, the demarcation was never clearly established.
• After Independence, both nations should ideally have worked out a precise border agreement. However, India maintained that the boundaries were already defined by British-era maps, without considering the absence of effective ground control.

The Origins of Conflict

• Neither country had permanent settlements in Aksai Chin, a desolate high-altitude desert. China, seeking easier access to Tibet, built a road through Aksai Chin and asserted control.
• India, on the other hand, took charge of Tawang in present-day Arunachal Pradesh, relying on the 1914 Simla Agreement with Tibet, which outlined the McMahon Line as the boundary.
• China repeatedly suggested ways to resolve the dispute. In 1959, it proposed accepting a Line of Actual Control (LAC) with mutual withdrawals of 20 km.
• In 1960, Premier Zhou Enlai suggested a compromise: China would keep Aksai Chin, while recognising India’s sovereignty over Arunachal Pradesh. India rejected these proposals, remaining firm on its territorial claims.
• Later attempts to reassert control over Aksai Chin escalated tensions, eventually leading to the 1962 war. While China withdrew in the east beyond the McMahon Line, it retained portions of Ladakh captured during the war.

Post-war Period and Renewed Engagement

• For nearly 15 years, both sides avoided direct engagement along the border. In 1975, India set up the China Study Group to monitor the frontier, marking patrol points with the help of satellite imagery.
• In 1979, Foreign Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee visited Beijing, the first high-level Indian visit since the war. Despite being cut short by China’s attack on Vietnam, the visit revived some diplomatic engagement.
• China’s motivation was to prevent India from aligning too closely with the Soviet Union. Around this time, Deng Xiaoping revived Zhou’s earlier proposal, offering recognition of the McMahon Line in return for Indian acceptance of the existing situation in Ladakh. However, India—still wary after 1962—rejected such trade-offs.
• By 1983, Beijing went further, suggesting that India concede not only Aksai Chin but also the areas occupied in 1962. Known as the ‘LAC Plus’ proposal, it too was declined.

Border Talks and Persistent Deadlocks

• Formal border negotiations began in December 1981 but soon stalled. China pressed for a package deal, while India preferred a sector-by-sector approach. By 1985, Beijing hardened its stance, demanding concessions in the eastern sector—particularly Tawang, a significant Tibetan Buddhist centre that