WHITE PHOSPHORUS

Recently, global human rights organizations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) of employing white phosphorus munitions in Gaza and Lebanon. This use is alleged to contravene International Humanitarian Law (IHL) which governs the conduct of states and non-state groups in armed conflicts. While the IDF denies these allegations, the controversial nature of white phosphorus demands a closer look.

2. About White Phosphorus

White phosphorus is a highly reactive substance that ignites upon exposure to oxygen, producing dense, white smoke and extreme temperatures of 815 degrees Celsius. It falls under "Pyrophoric solids, category 1" according to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, signifying its rapid ignition when in contact with air. White phosphorus emits a distinctive garlic-like odour.

Image Source: Human Rights Watch

3. Military Applications of White Phosphorus

• White phosphorus is utilized in artillery shells, bombs, and rockets, and can even be delivered through textile wedges soaked in the chemical.
• Its primary military function is as a smokescreen, concealing troop movements on the ground.
• It also disrupts infrared optics and weapons tracking systems, enhancing protection against guided missiles.
• Munitions can be ground-burst for concentrated smoke or air-burst to cover a larger area.
• Additionally, white phosphorus can be employed as an incendiary weapon to force enemy combatants out of concealed positions.

4. Health and Environmental Impacts

• Exposure to white phosphorus can lead to severe burns, often extending to the bone, causing excruciating pain, slow healing, and susceptibility to infections.
• Even burns covering just 10% of the body can be fatal. Inhaling white phosphorus particles or smoke can result in respiratory damage and harm to internal organs, often leading to a lifetime of suffering with impaired mobility and painful scars.
• It can also devastate infrastructure, damage crops, kill livestock, and start raging fires, particularly in windy conditions.

5. Historical Usage

• White phosphorus munitions have a history dating back to the late 19th century when Irish nationalists used a formulation known as "Fenian fire."
• They were extensively used by British and Commonwealth forces in World War I in grenades, bombs, shells, and rockets.
• These munitions have been employed in various conflicts worldwide, including the Normandy invasion in World War II, the US invasion of Iraq in 2004, and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
• More recently, Russia faced accusations of using white phosphorus bombs during the invasion of Ukraine.

6. Legal Status of White Phosphorus Munitions

• White phosphorus munitions are not subject to a blanket ban, but their use is regulated under International Humanitarian Law.
• They are not classified as chemical weapons because their primary operational purpose is to generate heat and smoke, rather than toxicity.
• Therefore, their use is governed by the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW), specifically Protocol III, which deals with incendiary weapons. Palestine and Lebanon have ratified Protocol III, while Israel has not.
• However, there are notable loopholes in Protocol III. It restricts some but not all uses of ground-launched incendiary weapons near concentrations of civilians.
• Additionally, the protocol's definition of incendiary weapons arguably excludes multipurpose munitions like those containing white phosphorus, which are considered primarily as "smoking" agents.
• Over the years, there have been proposals to strengthen the CCW to address these loopholes.