NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY
- Established in 1968 and coming into effect in 1970, this global agreement was designed to curb the spread of nuclear arms and technologies, encourage collaboration on the peaceful application of nuclear energy, and advance nuclear disarmament.
- After World War II concluded in 1945 with the U.S. detonating atomic bombs over Japan, major powers began developing nuclear arsenals, even as parallel initiatives sought to control the dissemination of nuclear know-how.
- One such effort emerged in 1953 with the U.S. launching the Atoms for Peace program under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. This initiative paved the way for the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
- In a landmark address, Eisenhower emphasized that America’s goal went beyond merely limiting nuclear weapons. He advocated for repurposing atomic energy for constructive, peaceful purposes, rather than just eliminating its military applications.
- In a 1981 article, international affairs scholar Joseph Nye highlighted that the initiative’s most impactful legacy was the establishment of a safeguards regime. This system required non-nuclear-armed states to submit detailed reports on their civilian nuclear programs and allowed for international inspections to verify that nuclear material was not diverted for weaponization.
- According to the treaty, nuclear-weapon states are defined as those that had detonated a nuclear device before January 1, 1967—specifically the U.S., U.K., France, the Soviet Union (now Russia), and China.
- Currently, 191 countries are parties to the treaty. India, which conducted its first nuclear test in 1974, has not signed it and instead emphasizes the need for universal and non-discriminatory approaches to nuclear non-proliferation.
- Critics argue that the treaty is biased in favor of the five permanent UN Security Council members, given the arbitrary cut-off date that grants them nuclear status.
- Pakistan has also declined to join the treaty. Israel, though widely believed to possess nuclear arms, has neither confirmed this nor become a signatory. North Korea joined in 1985 but withdrew in 2003 after revelations about its uranium enrichment program and the subsequent expulsion of IAEA inspectors
- Among the 11 provisions of the treaty, one outlines the process for a country to exit. Article 10 specifically allows for withdrawal, stating that any member, while exercising its sovereign rights, may leave the treaty if it determines that extraordinary circumstances related to the treaty’s subject matter have endangered its core national interests.
- The withdrawing nation must give three months' advance notice to all treaty parties and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), including an explanation of the exceptional events prompting its decision.
- Iran became a party to the treaty in 1970, almost a decade before it transitioned into a theocratic state following the Islamic Revolution. Recently, for the first time in nearly two decades, the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 35-member Board of Governors—which includes countries like the P5, India, Japan, Ukraine, and Bangladesh—accused Iran of violating its non-proliferation commitments.
- The resolution passed by the board pointed to Iran’s repeated failure since 2019 to provide adequate and timely cooperation with the IAEA, particularly regarding nuclear materials and activities at undeclared sites. Iran, however, insisted that it has consistently fulfilled its safeguards obligations.
- Leaving the treaty presents two major risks: first, Iran would no longer be subject to the IAEA’s routine inspections and oversight; second, its exit could embolden other nations to abandon the treaty as well, undermining global efforts to control nuclear proliferation.
- According to Bloomberg’s analysis of IAEA data, agency inspectors visited Iranian nuclear sites at a rate of 1.4 times per day on average last year—an access level that would cease if Iran withdrew.
- Nonetheless, staying within the NPT does not automatically indicate a country has no interest in developing nuclear arms, as cases like North Korea have shown. Although Iranian leaders have repeatedly stated they do not intend to pursue nuclear weapons, shifting geopolitical realities in the Middle East leave room for uncertainty.
- Despite its limitations, scholars such as Joseph Nye argue that the treaty has played a valuable role in at least slowing the global spread of nuclear weapons
The IAEA plays a critical role in enforcing the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) by monitoring compliance through regular inspections, especially in non-nuclear-weapon states that agree to open their civilian nuclear programs to scrutiny.
The IAEA is governed by a Board of Governors (35 member states) and a General Conference, and its reports are influential in shaping global nuclear policy
Notable contributions:
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Verification missions in Iran, North Korea, and Iraq.
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Coordination of global nuclear safety after incidents like Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011).
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Promotion of nuclear medicine and radiation therapies in developing countries.
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The NPT recognizes only five countries as nuclear-weapon states (the U.S., Russia, China, the U.K., and France) — those that tested nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967.
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India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 (Smiling Buddha) and was thus excluded from this group.
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This arbitrary cut-off date effectively created two classes of states: nuclear "haves" and "have-nots." India argues that this undermines the principle of equality in international law
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While the NPT obliges non-nuclear weapon states to not acquire nuclear weapons, it only vaguely commits the nuclear powers to pursue disarmament.
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India criticizes the treaty for lacking a concrete timeline for global nuclear disarmament, making it imbalanced.
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India sees possession of nuclear weapons as essential for strategic autonomy and national security, especially given its geopolitical environment (with nuclear-armed neighbors like China and Pakistan).
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Signing the NPT as a non-nuclear state would have required India to give up its nuclear weapons capability, which it sees as unacceptable for its national security
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In 2008, India secured a civil nuclear deal with the U.S. and a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), despite not signing the NPT.
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This demonstrated growing global acceptance of India's nuclear status and its responsible record on non-proliferation
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For Prelims: Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
For Mains: GS II - Non Proliferation treaty
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