MANDALA SYSTEM
1. Context
The chapters of the Rig Veda are called mandalas — circles of hymns. This is because unlike a book, where one moves from chapter to chapter, the Vedic chapters are not really chapters
2. Mandala System in Jain, Buddhist, and Mauryan traditions
- In Jainism, when a Tirthankara attains omniscience—complete knowledge of all things and beings—he is believed to ascend into the air, appearing to face all directions simultaneously. Beings from all realms gather around him in concentric circles to hear his teachings.
- Each individual perceives that the Tirthankara is addressing them personally, speaking in their own language and at their level of understanding. This sacred circular assembly was known as sam-sharana, symbolizing refuge for all.
- In Buddhism, the relics of the Buddha were enshrined beneath a hemispherical mound resembling an overturned bowl, known as a stupa. Surrounding the stupa was a circular pathway, bordered by a decorative fence adorned with disc-shaped ornaments illustrating scenes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka tales.
- Devotees would walk along this path in a clockwise direction, ensuring that the stupa remained on their right. This circular movement not only facilitated mindfulness but also deepened their contemplation of the Buddha’s teachings. This practice, known as pra-dakshina (meaning "towards the south"), was later integrated into Hindu temple rituals.
- The concept of circularity also influenced the idea of the Buddhist or Jain ruler, referred to as a Chakravartin. The term chakra (wheel) symbolized the extent of his dominion: the capital city at the center, the trade routes forming the spokes, and the outer boundary representing the limits of his influence.
- This model of governance gained prominence during the Mauryan period (circa 300 BCE) and became widely recognized in Buddhist and Jain traditions
3. Power Circles
- Kautilya, in the Arthashastra (circa 300 CE), introduced the concept of Rajamandala, a circular framework for understanding a kingdom’s structure. At its core is the king, surrounded by land for which he collects rent. Beyond this lies territory where he imposes taxes in exchange for protection.
- Further out are lands that pay him tribute; if they refuse, he uses military threats to enforce compliance. Beyond these tributary states are hostile territories that do not acknowledge his authority.
- Further still lies the enemy of the enemy, with whom the king forms alliances through gift exchanges to strategically weaken the hostile state caught in between.
- This concept gained prominence during the Gupta period and later influenced the Mandala kingdoms of Southeast Asia. The expansion or contraction of the mandala depended on the strength of the ruler—when the king was powerful, his influence spread; when weak, it shrank. This dynamic model of governance defined the Indian approach to kingship, centered around the idea of concentric circles of power.
- In Tantric Buddhism, the mandala structure became more intricate, incorporating multiple layers. At the center was Adi-Buddha, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by the Dhyan-Buddhas, who were encircled by Bodhisattvas.
- Similarly, Chanakya’s Rajamandala evolved into a more complex system of governance: the maharaja stood at the center, with subordinate rajas around him, each of whom had their own samantas (vassals). Every layer was part of a larger whole, reflecting an increasingly sophisticated political structure
4. Evolution of Governance
- In Odisha, some of the earliest Tantric mandalas—stupas arranged in circular formations—symbolized the spiritual realm and influenced political structures. This architectural concept later inspired the grand circular design of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia, around 900 CE.
- The mandala framework provided a model for rulers to structure their kingdoms, influencing not just governance but also temple architecture and paintings. As Buddhist and Hindu traditions spread, this design became prominent in regions such as Tibet, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, and Java.
- The same principle guided the construction of Hindu temples, where a central temple was surrounded by progressively smaller temples in concentric layers.
- In the Chakravartin system, power was primarily concentrated along trade routes. The Raja-mandala model extended control over agricultural land to generate revenue through rent, taxes, and tribute.
- Meanwhile, the Tantric mandala system introduced a cascading hierarchy of authority—lesser kings controlled their own territories but paid tribute to more powerful rulers, who, in turn, acknowledged an even stronger sovereign.
- This structure was fluid, with power centers constantly shifting based on the strength of individual rulers, causing mandalas to expand and contract organically. This governance model was distinctly Indian.
- However, with the advent of Islam, a different system emerged, where a singular sultan held supreme authority, granting land (iqta) to loyal subjects in exchange for military service.
- The circular power structure briefly reappeared under Akbar around 1600 CE, particularly in the design of his Diwan-e-Khas, where he positioned himself at the center on a lotus throne, symbolizing his central role in governance
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For Prelims: Mandalas, iqtas, Jains, Budhists
For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture
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Source: Indianexpress
