POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

1. Bharhut Stupa

Folded hands in the narratives as well as single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in Later times, the hands are shown with the natural projection against the chest. 

Later the human body and other forms were sculpted There is a general stiffness in the body and arms. But gradually, such visual appearance was modified by making images with deep carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta are good Examples.

Themes of Narrative Relief 

In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb of Queen Mayadevi.

On the other hand, the depiction of a Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events according to the geographical location of the story like the Depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Bodhisattva deer is rescuing a man on his back.

The other event in the same picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became Part of stupa decoration. One main characteristic in all the male images of the first–second centuries BCE is the knotted headgear.

2. Sanchi Stupa

Stupa-1 at Sanchi has an upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas Depiction of posture gets naturalistic and there is no stiffness in body images given movement. Carving techniques appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue to be used representing the Buddha. At Sanchi Stupa-1, Narratives get more elaborated; the historical narratives such as the siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved with considerable details. 

3. Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

From the first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan), Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged as important centres of art production.

 Buddha In the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the Confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India.

The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.

 Early Jain Teerthankar images and portraits of kings, especially the headless Kanishka are also found in Mathura. Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas) faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in large numbers.

 It may be noted that the images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas (weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images, the volume of the images is projected out of the picture plane, the faces are round and smiling, and heaviness in the sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments Of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, and Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are profusely sculpted.

In the second century CE, images in Mathura became sensual, rotundity increased, and they became fleshier. The trend continued in the fourth century CE but in the late fourth century CE, the massiveness and fleshiness were reduced further and the flesh became more tightened, the volume of the drapery also was reduced and in the fifth and and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is integrated into the sculptural mass. 

In this period, two important schools of sculptures in northern India are Worth noting. The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art production.

Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders, and the halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha Images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated. 

4. Buddhist Monument of South India

Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli, etc. Amaravati has a mahachaitya.

Like the Sanchi Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshinapatha enclosed.  A vedika on which many narrative sculptures are depicted. The domical stupa structure is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs which is a unique feature.

 The Torana of the Amaravati Stupa has disappeared over a period of time. Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories are depicted. Though in the Amaravati Stupa, there is evidence of construction activity in the third century BCE, it was best developed in the first and second century CE.

 Like Sanchi, the early phase is devoid of Buddha images but during the later phase, in the second and third centuries CE, the Buddha images are carved on the drum slabs and at many other places. Interior space in the composition is created by different postures of the figures such as semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal, side, etc. Figures are slender, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi Sculptural form in this area is characterized by intense emotions. 

Narratives are profusely depicted which include events from the life of The Buddha and the Jataka stories. Several Jataka scenes have not been completely identified.

 In the depiction of the birth event, the queen is shown reclining on a bed surrounded by female attendants and a small-sized elephant is carved on the upper frame of the composition showing the dream of Queen Mayadevi. In Another Relief, four events related to the birth of the Buddha are shown.

Independent Buddha images are also found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda and Guntapalle in Andhra Pradesh. Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near Eluru. Small apsidal and circular chaitya halls have been excavated belonging to the second century BCE.

 The other important site where rock-cut stupas have been excavated is Anakapalle near Vishakhapatnam. In Karnataka, Sannati in Gulbarga district is the largest stupa site excavated so far. It also has a stupa like the one in Amaravati decorated with sculptural relief

Among the important structured viharas, mention may be made of the Sanchi apsidal chaitya Structure, i.e., temple 18, which is a simple shrine temple having front pillars and a hall at the back. Similar structured temples at Guntapalle are also worth mentioning.

 Along with the images of the Buddha, other Buddhist images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha

Started getting sculpted. However, with the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism many Bodhisattva images were added as a part of the personified representations of certain virtues or Qualities as propagated by the Buddhist religious principles for the welfare of the masses.

5. Cave Tradition in Western India 

In western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE onwards have been excavated. 

Mainly three architectural types were executed—(i) apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii) apsidal vault-roof pillar less hall (found at Thana-Nadsur in Maharashtra); and (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back (Found at Kondivite in Maharashtra).

The front of the chaitya hall is dominated by the motif of a semi-circular chaitya arch with an open front which has a wooden façade and, in some cases; there is no dominating chaitya arch Window such as found at the Kondivite.

In Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated. The cave consists of an open courtyard with two pillars, a stone screen wall to protect from rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall as a facade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars, and a stupa at the back.

Karla Chaitya Hall is decorated with human and animal figures. They are heavy in their execution and move in the picture space. The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites.

The plan of the viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall

The vihara caves at Nashik were excavated with front pillars carved with Ghata-base and ghata-capital with human figures. One such vihara cave was also Excavated at Junnar in Maharashtra, which is popularly known as Ganeshleni. (An image of Ganesha belonging to a later period was installed in it). A stupa was added at the back of the hall of the vihara and it became a chaitya vihara.

The stupas in the fourth and fifth centuries CE have Buddha images Attached. Junnar has the largest cave excavations— more than two hundred Caves around the hills of the town— whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has a Hundred and eight excavated caves.

5.1. Ajanta

The most famous cave site is Ajanta. It is located in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra State.  Ajanta has twenty-nine caves. It has four chaitya caves datable to the earlier phase, i.e., the second and the first century BCE (Cave Nos. 10 and 9) and the later phase, i.e., the fifth century CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26). It has large chaitya viharas And is decorated with sculptures and paintings.

Their facade is decorated with Buddha and, Bodhisattva images. Cave No. 26 is very big and the entire interior hall is carved with a variety of Buddha images, the biggest one being the Mahaparinibbana image. The rest of the caves are vihara-chaitya caves Lines are clearly defined and are very rhythmic. Body colour gets merged with the outer line creating the effect of volume caves are painted with considerable naturalism

 The second phase of paintings can be studied from the images of the Buddhas painted on the walls and pillars of Cave Nos. 10 and 9.

Various skin colours are used in the paintings such as brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre, etc., which represent a multicoloured population Movements in the figures are very rhythmic Half-closed, elongated eyes are employed.

The themes of the paintings are the events from the life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas. Some paintings such as Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka and Vidhurpundita Jataka cover the entire wall of the cave.

It is worth noting that Chaddanta Jataka was painted in the early Cave No. 10 with many details and events grouped according to their geographical locations Chaddanta faithfully follows the Pali text whereas the one painted in Cave No. 17 is very different. In one of the events, the Bodhisattva, Chaddanta, is shown removing his own tusk and giving it to the hunter, Sonuttar.

The other important paintings are the famous Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave No. 1. However, it may be observed that the images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are very common in Ajanta but the best preserved paintings are in Cave No.1. Some figures in Cave No. 2 have affiliation with the Vengi sculptures. 

5.2. Ellora

Located in Aurangabad District, has thirty-four Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves it has monasteries associated with the three religions dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE. It is also unique in terms of stylistic eclecticism, i.e., the confluence of many styles in one place

Twelve Buddhist caves have many images belonging to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhya, Avalokiteshwara, Maitreya, Amitabha, etc.

 Buddhist caves Ajanta also has excavated double-storeyed caves but at Ellora, the triple-storey is a unique achievement. They are generally guarded by the images of Padmapani and Vajrapani.  The Brahmanical Cave Nos. 13–28 has many sculptures. Many caves are dedicated to Shaivism, but the images of both Shiva and Vishnu and their various Forms according to Puranic narrative are depicted. Among the Shaivite themes, Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Andhakasurvadha, and Kalyanasundara are profusely depicted Whereas among the Vaishnavite themes, the different avatars of Vishnu are depicted Cave No. 16 is known as Kailash leni. A rock-cut temple has been carved out of a single rock, a unique achievement of the artisans.

5.3. Bagh Caves

The Bagh Caves, consist of Buddhist mural paintings Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh These rock-cut cave monuments were carved over a period of time during ancient India mostly during the Satvahana period.  

Out of the original nine caves, only five have survived, all of which are viharas or resting places for monks, having a quadrangular plan. The most significant of the five caves is Cave No. 4, commonly known as the Rang Mahal.

5.4. Elephanta Cave

The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai are dominated by the Shaivite faith the tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan and they are found not only in Maharashtra but also in Karnataka, mainly at Badami and Aiholi, executed under the patronage of the Chalukyas; in Andhra Pradesh in the area of Vijayawada; and Tamil Nadu, mainly at Mahabalipuram. 

6. Cave Tradition in Eastern India

Like in western India, Buddhist caves have also been excavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh, and in Odisha. One of the main sites in Andhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in the Eluru district Perhaps it is among the very unique sites where the structured stupas, viharas and caves are excavated in one place.

 The Guntapalle chaitya cave is circular with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya arch carved at the entrance. The cave is relatively small when compared to the caves in western India the main vihara caves, the small dimensions, have been decorated with chaitya arches on the exterior. They are rectangular with Vaulted roofs and are carved single-storeyed or double-storeyed without a large central hall. 

Apart from Guntapalle, the other important cave site is Rampaerrampallam which has very moderate small excavations but there are rock-cut stupas on the hillock. At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, caves were excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa was carved out of the hillock during the fourth–fifth centuries CE. It is a unique site as it has the biggest rock-cut stupas in the country. The rock-cut cave tradition also existed in Odisha. The earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves are scattered and have inscriptions of Kharavela Jain kings. According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks

6.1. Sanchi

Sanchi, about 50 km from Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh, Is a world heritage site there are three main stupas at Sanchi. Stupa-1 is presumed to have the relics of the Buddha, Stupa-2, and the relics of ten less famous arhats belonging to three different generations. Their names are found on The relic casket.

 Stupa-3 has the relics of Sariputta and Mahamougalayana. StupaStupa-1, known for the carvings on its gateways is one of the Finest examples of stupa architecture. Originally the stupa was a Small brick structure which expanded over a period and was covered with stone, vedika and the torana (gateways). The Ashokan lion capital pillar with an inscription is found on the southern side of the stupa, indicating how Sanchi became a centre of monastic and Artistic activities. The south gateway was made first followed by the others.

The pradakshinapath around the stupa is covered with the vedika. There is also the upper pradakshinapath which is unique to this site. The four gateways are decorated profusely with sculptures.

Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, etc. Toranas are constructed in all four directions... Though Stupa-1 is the oldest stupa, the carving of images on the vedica of Stupa-2 is earlier than those on Stupa-1.

Jatakas also become an important part of the narratives in stupas. The figures at Sanchi, despite being small in dimension, show considerable mastery of sculpting. Their physiognomic treatment of the body shows both depth and dimension which are very naturalistic. There are guardian images on pillars and the Shalbhanjika (i.e., the lady holding the branch of a tree) sculptures are remarkable in their treatment of volume. The rigidity of the earlier sculptures of Stupa-2 is no more there. Each torana consists of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on the top. Each horizontal bar is decorated with different sculptural themes on the front as well as at the back. Supporting the extensions of the lowermost horizontal bar from below are the images of Shalbhanjikas. 

6.2. Seated Buddha Katra Mound, Mathura

The image of the Buddha from the Katra mound belongs to the second century CE. It represents the Buddha with two Bodhisattva attendants. The Buddha is seated in padmasana (cross-folded legs) and the right hand is in the abhayamudra, raised a little above the shoulder level whereas the left hand is placed on the left thigh.

 The ushanisha, i.e., hair knot, is shown with a vertically raised projection. Mathura sculptures from this period are made with light volume having fleshy bodies. The shoulders are broad. The sanghati (garment) covers only one shoulder and has been made prominently visible covering the left hand whereas while covering the torso, the independent volume of the garment is reduced to the body torso. The Buddha is seated on a lion's throne. The attendant figures are identified as the images of the Padmapani and Vajrapani Boddhisattvas as one holds a lotus and the other a vajra (thunderbolt).

6.3. Buddha Head, Taxila

The Buddha head from Taxila in the Gandhara region, now in Pakistan, dates back to the second century CE and belongs to the Kushana period. The image shows hybridised pictorial conventions that developed during the Gandhara period. It has Greco-Roman elements in the treatment of sculpture. The Buddha's head has typical Hellenistic elements that have grown over a period of time. The curly hair of the Buddha is thick having a covered layer of sharp and linear strokes over the head.

Image Source: Wikicommons

The forehead plane is large having protruding eyeballs, the eyes are half-closed and the face cheeks are not round like the images found in other parts of India.

There is a certain amount of heaviness in the figures of the Gandhara region. The ears are elongated especially the earlobes. The expression of calmness is the central point of attraction assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition is the hallmark of the Gandhara style.

6.4. Seated Buddha Sarnath

 This image of the Buddha from Sarnath belonging to the late fifth Century it has been made in Chunar sandstone. The Buddha is shown seated on a throne in the padmasana. It represents dhammachackrapravartana as can be seen from the figures on the throne. The panel below the throne depicts a chakra (wheel) in the centre and a deer on either side with his disciples.

Thus, it is the representation of the historical event of dhammachakrapravartana or the preaching of the dhamma. This Buddha image is a fine example of the Sarnath School of Sculpture. The body is slender and well-proportioned but slightly elongated. The face is round, the eyes are half-closed, the lower lip is protruding, and the Roundness of the cheeks has reduced as compared to the earlier images from the Kushana Period at Mathura.

The hands are shown in dhammachakrapravartana mudra placed just below the chest. The neck is slightly elongated with two incised lines indicating folds. The ushanisha has circular curled hair. The aim of the sculptors in ancient India had always been to represent the Buddha as a great human being who achieved Nibbana (i.e., cessation of anger and hate)

6.5. Padmapani Boddhisattva Ajanta Cave No. 1

Dates back to the late fifth century The Bodhisattva is holding a padma (lotus) and has large shoulders figure of the Bodhisattva is wearing a big crown in which detailed rendering is visible.

 The head is slightly bent to the left. The eyes are half-closed and are slightly Elongated. The nose is sharp and straight. Light colour all over the projected planes of the face is aimed at creating an effect of three-dimensionality.

Light red, brown, green and blue colours are used. Nose projections, incised end of lips with lower lip projection and small chin contribute to the overall effect of solidity in the figure composition.

On the other side of the image, Vajrapani Bodhisattva has been painted. He holds a vajra in his right hand and wears a crown. This image also bears the same pictorial qualities as the Padmapani.

This image also bears the same pictorial qualities as the Padmapani. Cave No. 1 has many interesting paintings of Buddhist themes such as Mahajanak Jataka, Umag Jataka, etc. The Mahajanak Jataka is painted on the entire wall side and is the biggest narrative painting. 

6.6. Mara Vijaya, Ajanta Cave No. 26

The panel shows the image of the Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army along with his daughter. The event is part of the Enlightenment.

 It is a personification of the commotion of mind which the Buddha Went through at the time of enlightenment. Mara represents desire. According to the narrative, there is a dialogue between the Buddha and Mara, And the Buddha is shown with his right hand indicating that Earth is a witness to his generosity.

On the left lower end, the image of Mara is shown contemplating how to disturb Siddhartha, the name of the Buddha before enlightenment. The army of Mara is shown marching towards the Buddha in the first half of the panel whereas the lower half of the panel shows the departing army of Mara giving him adorations.

The centrally placed Buddha is in padmasana and a tree at the back is shown by dense leaves.

Some of the facial features of the Mara army have tacit characters of the sculptures from Vidarbha. This is the largest sculptural panel at Ajanta

6.7. Maheshmurti Elephanta

The image of Maheshmurti at Elephanta dates back to the early sixth century. The central head is the main Shiva figure whereas the other two visible heads are of Bhairava and Uma.

Central face is in high relief having a round face, thick lips and heavy eyelids. The lower lip is prominently protruded showing a very different characteristic. The all-inclusive aspect of Shiva is exhibited in this sculpture by soft modelling, smooth surface and large face.  The face of Shiva-Bhairava is clearly shown in the profile in anger with a bulging Eye and moustache. The other face showing feminine characters is of Uma who is the consort of Shiva.