DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL SERVICES

The development of civil services in India can be traced back to the Maurya Empire (322-185 BC), which had a well-organized bureaucracy. The civil service system was further developed under the Mughal Empire (1526-1857), which introduced a merit-based system of recruitment and promotion. The British colonial government also played a role in the development of civil services in India. In 1854, the British government introduced the Indian Civil Service (ICS), which was a merit-based system of recruitment for British officials to serve in the Indian administration. The ICS was a highly prestigious service, and it attracted the best and brightest minds from Britain. After India gained independence in 1947, the ICS was replaced by the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). The IAS is the premier civil service in India, and it is responsible for administering the country's bureaucracy.

Creation of the Indian Civil Service (ICS)

• In the early stages of British colonial rule, the administration of India was conducted by the officers of the British East India Company.
• There was no distinct civil service; instead, various officers, often referred to as "writers," carried out administrative functions.
• The Charter Act of 1833 laid the foundation for a more organized and competitive civil service system in India.
• The act proposed the introduction of competitive examinations in England to select civil servants for India. These exams became known as the "Civil Services Examination."
• In 1858, after the Indian Mutiny (also known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857), the British Crown took direct control of India from the East India Company.
• The ICS was formally established in 1858, to create a professional and efficient administrative cadre for British India.
• The ICS was a prestigious and elite service, and its members were responsible for top administrative and managerial roles in the government.

Structure and Function

• The ICS was divided into several branches, including the Indian Civil Service (Executive), Indian Police Service, and more.
• ICS officers were involved in various administrative functions, such as revenue collection, law and order maintenance, and general governance.
• They played a pivotal role in the formulation and implementation of policies, often acting as district collectors, commissioners, and magistrates.
• Recruitment to the ICS involved highly competitive examinations held in England. These exams tested candidates on a wide range of subjects, including English, mathematics, history, and languages.
• Successful candidates underwent training at institutions like Haileybury College and later at the Indian Civil Service (ICS) Academy at Dehradun.
• ICS officers were typically British, and there was a distinct lack of Indian representation in the service.
• The establishment of the ICS significantly enhanced the efficiency and effectiveness of British colonial administration in India.
• It allowed the British to implement policies and laws systematically across the vast subcontinent.
• The ICS also played a role in maintaining British control over India, often implementing policies that were beneficial to British interests.

The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861, often referred to as the Indian Civil Service (ICS) Act, was a significant piece of legislation during British colonial rule in India. This act laid down the framework for the recruitment, functioning, and administration of the Indian Civil Service, which was the elite administrative service responsible for governing British India. 

The key features and provisions of the Indian Civil Services Act of 1861:

• The act formally established the Indian Civil Service as the premier administrative service for British India.
• The ICS was composed of British nationals who were recruited to serve in various administrative capacities across India.
• The act provided details about the recruitment process for the ICS.
• Recruitment was done through a competitive examination held in England, often referred to as the Civil Services Examination.
• The examination assessed candidates on a wide range of subjects, including English, mathematics, history, and languages.
• Successful candidates were appointed as probationers and underwent training at institutions like Haileybury College and, later, the Indian Civil Service (ICS) Academy at Dehradun.
• The act outlined the terms and conditions of service for ICS officers, including their salaries, allowances, and retirement benefits.
• ICS officers were granted significant powers and responsibilities, including the authority to hold key administrative positions in British India.
• ICS officers were tasked with various administrative functions, such as revenue collection, law and order maintenance, and general governance.
• They played a pivotal role in the formulation and implementation of policies, often acting as district collectors, commissioners, and magistrates.
• The ICS was composed entirely of British nationals. Indian nationals were not allowed to join this elite administrative service during the colonial period.
• The ICS played a crucial role in the governance and administration of British India. Its members were responsible for the efficient functioning of the colonial administration.

The Aitchison Commission on Public Services, officially known as the "Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India," was a significant commission appointed in 1886 during British colonial rule in India. It played a crucial role in shaping the structure, functioning, and recruitment policies of the Indian Civil Services (ICS) and other public services. The commission was named after Lord Aitchison, who was the Governor of Punjab at the time and also served as the President of the commission. The British government in India was concerned about the efficiency and fairness of the civil services' recruitment and administration.

The primary objectives of the Aitchison Commission

• To review and recommend reforms in the recruitment process of the Indian Civil Services and other superior services.
• To examine the existing structure and functioning of the civil services and propose improvements.
• To assess the suitability of the British model of civil services for India's unique administrative needs.

Recommendations and provisions

• It recommended the separation of the ICS from other services, making the ICS the exclusive administrative service for British nationals.
• The maximum age for entry into civil services should be 23 years.
• The commission proposed that the recruitment process for the ICS should continue to be based on competitive examinations held in England. However, it recommended some modifications to the examination system to make it more relevant to Indian conditions.
• The commission emphasized the importance of providing training and education to civil servants, including language training to help them communicate effectively with the Indian population.
• The commission recommended the introduction of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) Examination in India to facilitate the recruitment of Indian nationals to the ICS. This marked a significant departure from the earlier practice of recruiting only British nationals.
• The commission also made recommendations for improving the recruitment and administration of local services in India.

Impact

• The introduction of the ICS Examination in India paved the way for the recruitment of Indian nationals into the ICS.
• It marked the beginning of a more inclusive and representative civil services system.
• The commission's emphasis on training and education contributed to the professional development of civil servants.

The Montford Reforms, also known as the Government of India Act 1919, were a series of constitutional reforms introduced by the British government in India in 1919. The reforms were named after Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India. The Montford Reforms were the first major constitutional reforms introduced in India after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The reforms were designed to give Indians a greater role in the government of India. The period leading up to the reforms saw heightened political activity and demands for self-governance in India, largely influenced by the ideals of self-determination and democratic principles emerging from World War I.

Objectives

The primary objective of the Montford Reforms was to introduce a greater degree of self-governance and participation in the administration of India. The reforms aimed to create a more representative government that would include Indian participation in the decision-making process.

Key Provisions and Features

One of the central features of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms was the introduction of the dyarchy system in the provinces. Under this system:

• Subjects were divided into two categories: Reserved and Transferred.
• Reserved subjects, including finance, law and order, and revenue, remained under the control of the British-appointed Governor and his Executive Council.
• Transferred subjects, such as education, health, and agriculture, were placed under Indian ministers who were responsible to the Legislative Council.
• This system aimed to provide Indians with experience in administration while maintaining British control over crucial matters.

The reforms expanded the size and powers of the Legislative Councils at both the provincial and central levels.

• The number of elected Indian members in the Provincial Legislative Councils increased.
• The Central Legislative Council was expanded, with more members and an increased Indian representation.
• The councils were given some legislative powers, including the ability to discuss budgets and ask questions.

A limited form of diarchy was introduced at the central (all-India) level as well, where some subjects were reserved for the British Government, while others were transferred to the newly formed Government of India. However, real power continued to be concentrated in the hands of the British authorities.

The reforms expanded the electorate, allowing a larger section of the Indian population to participate in elections. However, the franchise remained limited, with restrictions based on property and education qualifications.

The reforms did not make any significant changes in the structure of the Indian Civil Services, which remained a highly privileged and powerful bureaucracy.

Impact

• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were a significant step toward limited self-government in India and marked a shift toward constitutional reform.
• They allowed for greater Indian participation in the legislative process and administration, although real power remained largely in British hands.
• The reforms, however, fell short of meeting the demands of the Indian National Congress and other political groups that were pushing for complete self-governance.

The Lee Commission of 1924, officially known as the Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India, was a significant administrative inquiry conducted during the British colonial rule in India. The commission, headed by Sir William Lee, was appointed to review and suggest reforms related to the structure, functioning, and recruitment policies of the Indian Civil Services (ICS) and other superior civil services in India. 

Historical Context

The period leading up to the commission's appointment saw increased demands for reforms in the Indian Civil Services and other superior civil services in India. There were concerns about the lack of Indian representation and opportunities for Indians to hold high administrative positions.

Objectives

The primary objective of the Lee Commission was to review and recommend reforms in the structure and functioning of the Indian Civil Services and other superior civil services in India.

The commission aimed to address the demands for increased Indian representation and participation in the administration.

Key Recommendations and Findings

• The Lee Commission recommended an increase in the recruitment of Indians into the Indian Civil Services (ICS) and other superior civil services. This was seen as a step toward greater Indian participation in administrative roles.
• The commission suggested the expansion and improvement of the Provincial Civil Services (PCS) to provide opportunities for Indians to hold higher administrative positions at the provincial level.
• The commission recommended the separation of the executive and judicial functions within the civil services to ensure impartiality and efficiency.
• The commission emphasized the importance of merit-based recruitment and recommended the establishment of a Public Service Commission to conduct competitive examinations for civil service recruitment.
• The Lee Commission recommended the establishment of the Indian Police Service (IPS) to oversee law and order and criminal administration, with a focus on professional policing.
• The commission stressed the need for better training facilities for civil servants, both in India and in the United Kingdom.

Impact:

1. The Lee Commission's recommendations led to several significant changes in the recruitment and functioning of the civil services in India.
2. The establishment of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and the expansion of provincial services were important steps toward decentralization and greater Indian participation in administration.
3. The recommendation to establish a Public Service Commission contributed to the development of a standardized and competitive recruitment process for civil services in India.

5. Government of India Act, 1935

The Government of India Act, 1935, was a significant piece of legislation enacted by the British Parliament to reform and reorganize the constitutional framework for governing British India. This act was a major milestone in the process of constitutional development in India and played a crucial role in shaping India's path to independence. 

Historical Background

The act was passed against the backdrop of growing political demands for constitutional reforms in British India. The Simon Commission, appointed in 1927, had failed to gain the support of Indian political parties, leading to a demand for greater Indian participation in shaping the constitution.

Objectives

1. To introduce a federal system of government in India.
2. To extend provincial autonomy and establish dyarchy at the provincial level.
3. To provide for the establishment of a federal legislature and a federal court.
4. To address the concerns of various communities and provinces within India.

Key Provisions and Features

The act introduced a federal system of government in India, consisting of the following:

• The provinces were to have full autonomy and responsible government.
• The act allowed princely states to join the federation on the terms they negotiated with the Viceroy.
• A federal government was established at the centre, responsible for subjects of national importance, such as defence and foreign affairs.

• The act significantly expanded provincial autonomy, transferring many subjects from the central government to the provinces.
• It introduced the concept of dyarchy at the provincial level, with certain subjects being reserved for the governor's control and others transferred to elected ministers.
• The act established a bicameral federal legislature consisting of the Federal Assembly (lower house) and the Council of States (upper house).
• The Federal Assembly was elected by the people, while the Council of States consisted of representatives from provinces and princely states.
• The federal legislature had limited powers, primarily dealing with federal subjects.
• A Federal Court was established as the highest judicial authority to adjudicate disputes between the centre and provinces and interpret the act.
• The act extended the franchise to a larger section of the population but retained separate electorates for Muslims.
• Seats were reserved for various communities, including Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
• The act abolished the diarchy at the centre and introduced a fully responsible government.

Significance

1. The Government of India Act, 1935, laid the foundation for a federal system in India, which later influenced the framing of the Indian Constitution in 1950.
2. It marked a significant shift of power from the central government to the provinces, granting greater autonomy.
3. The act introduced several constitutional innovations, including the federal court and a bicameral federal legislature.
4. It represented a step towards self-government, albeit with limitations, and paved the way for the eventual transfer of power to Indian leaders.

Limitations and Criticisms

1. The act retained several provisions that were criticized by Indian political leaders, such as separate electorates and inadequate representation for Indians in the federal legislature.
2. It allowed princely states to negotiate terms for joining the federation, leading to a fragmented and complex political landscape.
3. The act was never fully implemented due to the outbreak of World War II, and its provisions were partially put into effect through provincial governments.