MIGRATION: TYPES, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

1. Migration

• India's history is marked by waves of migration, with people arriving from Central and West Asia as well as Southeast Asia. This continuous influx of migrants has contributed significantly to the cultural, social, and economic diversity of India. The country has been a melting pot of cultures, as renowned poet Firaque Gorakhpuri beautifully expressed.
• Migration is not limited to India; it's a global phenomenon. People worldwide are migrating from villages to towns, smaller towns to cities, and even across international borders in search of better opportunities. Countries like the Middle East, Western Europe, America, Australia, East Asia, and South-East Asia attract significant numbers of migrants from India and other parts of the world.
• Migration has a profound impact on societies and economies. It influences population distribution, cultural exchange, labour markets, and social dynamics. Understanding migration patterns and their drivers is crucial for policymakers, urban planners, and social scientists to address the challenges and harness the opportunities presented by migration in a globalised world.

2. Historical Indian Migration Patterns

• During the British colonial period, millions of indentured labourers from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were sent to various destinations like Mauritius, the Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago, Guyana), Fiji, and South Africa. Similarly, the French and Dutch transported labourers from India to places like Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Surinam, while the Portuguese sent workers from Goa, Daman, and Diu to Angola and Mozambique. These migrations were regulated under the Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act), resembling time-bound contracts, yet the living conditions were often harsh and akin to slavery.
• In more recent times, a second wave of migration saw Indians venturing as professionals, artisans, traders, and factory workers to neighbouring countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and various African nations. This trend continues, driven by economic opportunities and globalization. Notably, there was a significant outflow of semi-skilled and skilled labourers during the oil boom in West Asia during the 1970s, alongside entrepreneurs and professionals moving to Western countries.
• The third wave of migration comprised professionals such as doctors, engineers (from the 1960s onwards), software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons (from the 1980s onwards), and others. These professionals migrated to countries like the USA, Canada, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, and more. This wave gained momentum post-liberalization in the 1990s, emphasizing education and knowledge-based emigration, which contributed to establishing the Indian Diaspora as one of the most influential and prosperous global communities.

The Indian diaspora has played a crucial role in the development of host countries across the globe. From economic contributions to cultural exchanges, the Indian diaspora's impact has been significant, especially in areas related to education, entrepreneurship, technology, finance, and media, making it a powerful and influential community worldwide.

Since the first Census conducted in 1881, migration has been recorded based on place of birth. Significant modifications were introduced in the 1961 Census, including additional questions about place of birth (village or town) and duration of residence. Subsequent Censuses, especially in 1971, incorporated more detailed information on the place of last residence and reasons for migration.

Questions Asked in Census

Census surveys in India inquire about migration through questions such as whether the individual was born in the current village or town, and if not, details about the place of birth, including rural/urban status, district, state, and country if born outside India. Additionally, if the individual has migrated to the current village or town, further questions are asked about the previous place of residence, including similar details.

Two Bases of Enumeration

Migration in the Census of India is enumerated based on two factors: place of birth (lifetime migrant) and place of last residence (migrant by place of last residence). In the 2001 Census, approximately 30% of the population were reported as migrants by place of birth, and 31% as migrants by place of last residence.

Streams of Migration

Internal migration in India is categorized into four streams: rural to rural (R-R), rural to urban (R-U), urban to urban (U-U), and urban to rural (U-R). In 2001, out of 315 million migrants, 98 million changed their place of residence in the last ten years, with 81 million being intrastate migrants. Female migrants dominated streams related to marriage.

International Migration

India experiences immigration from and emigration to neighbouring countries. In 2001, over 5 million individuals migrated to India, with 96% coming from neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal. Additionally, there are around 20 million people of Indian Diaspora spread across 110 countries.

Spatial Variation in Migration

Certain states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana attract migrants from others, while states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar experience net out-migration. Among urban agglomerations, Greater Mumbai received the highest number of in-migrants, mainly due to intra-state migration and the size of the state.

5. Consequences of Migration

Migration, as a response to disparities in opportunities across regions, brings forth a range of consequences affecting economic, social, cultural, political, demographic, and environmental dimensions.

Economic Consequences

1. Remittances: Migration generates significant remittance inflows, particularly from international migrants, serving as a vital source of foreign exchange for countries. Remittances support various sectors such as food, education, healthcare, and infrastructure development in migrant-sending regions.
2. Regional Development: Migration plays a pivotal role in regional development by contributing to the success of agricultural strategies like the green revolution. However, unregulated migration to urban areas leads to overcrowding and the development of slums, particularly in industrially developed states.

Demographic Consequences

1. Population Redistribution: Migration, especially rural-urban migration, reshapes population distribution within countries, contributing to urban population growth. However, it also leads to imbalances in age and sex composition, both in migrant-sending and receiving regions.

Social Consequences

1. Agents of Social Change: Migrants serve as agents of social change, facilitating the diffusion of new ideas and technologies from urban to rural areas.
2. Cultural Interactions: Migration fosters cultural intermixing, contributing to the evolution of composite cultures. However, it can also lead to anonymity and a sense of dejection among individuals, potentially leading to anti-social activities.

Environmental Consequences

1. Urban Pressure: Rural-urban migration strains urban infrastructure, leading to unplanned urban growth and the proliferation of slums. Over-exploitation of natural resources exacerbates environmental issues such as groundwater depletion, air pollution, and waste management.

Others

1. Impact on Women: Migration affects the status of women differently, with male-selective outmigration leaving behind added responsibilities for women. However, migration for education or employment can enhance women's autonomy while also increasing their vulnerability.
2. Brain Drain: While remittances benefit the source region, migration leads to the loss of highly skilled individuals, reinforcing underdevelopment. Dynamic economies attract skilled professionals from poorer regions, perpetuating the cycle of underdevelopment.

Understanding these consequences is essential for policymakers to develop strategies that maximize the benefits of migration while mitigating its negative impacts on both sending and receiving regions.