HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

Human settlements, whether villages, towns, or cities, are fundamental units of human geography. They reflect the intricate relationship between humans and their environment, encompassing permanent or semi-permanent places of habitation. Here, we delve into the classification, types, and patterns of settlements that shape human existence.

• Classification of Settlements: The rural-urban divide is a common framework for distinguishing settlements, although the criteria for categorization can vary. While population size is a factor, it's not universally definitive, as seen in densely populated regions like India and China. Traditionally, rural areas were associated with primary activities like agriculture, contrasting with urban centres where secondary and tertiary sectors dominate.
• Suburbanization is a contemporary trend where people move to cleaner, less congested areas outside cities for an improved quality of life. Suburbs, developed around major cities, witness significant daily commuting from residents to urban workplaces.

Functions-Based Differentiation

Differentiating settlements based on functions offers more insight. For instance, what constitutes a lower-order function like petrol pumps varies between countries. Function hierarchies reflect regional economic nuances; facilities in developed country villages can be scarce in developing nations.

Types and Patterns of Settlements

Settlements can be classified by shape and pattern, revealing insights into community dynamics and land utilization.

1. Compact or Nucleated Settlements: Dense clusters of houses, common in fertile plains and river valleys, fostering close-knit communities and shared occupations.
2. Dispersed Settlements: Houses spaced apart, often interspersed with fields, yet connected by cultural features like markets or places of worship.

1. Rural Settlements

Rural settlements are closely tied to land and primary activities like agriculture. They often gravitate near water bodies for easy access to water, critical for drinking, irrigation, and transportation. The choice of settlement locations considers factors like fertile land, flood protection, and proximity to resources like wood or stone.

• Building Materials and Defense Strategies: Early settlements leveraged available materials like wood or stone. Defensive considerations, especially during periods of conflict, led to strategic placements on higher ground or defensive hills, as seen in various global regions.
• Planned Settlements: Governments sometimes establish planned settlements, providing infrastructure and shelter. Examples include villagization schemes in Ethiopia and canal colonies in India, showcasing intentional human settlement planning. Understanding the dynamics of human settlements offers valuable insights into societal structures, environmental interactions, and historical development paths.

1.1. Patterns and Challenges of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements exhibit diverse patterns shaped by geographical factors and human activities. These patterns, alongside inherent challenges, underscore the complexity of rural life.

Classification of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements vary based on location, function, and form:

1. Setting-based Classification Includes plain, plateau, coastal, forest, and desert villages.
2. Function-based Classification Encompasses farming, fishing, lumberjack, and pastoral villages.
3. Form-based Classification Includes linear, rectangular, circular, star-like, T-shaped, Y-shaped, cross-shaped, and double villages.

Patterns of Rural Settlements

1. Linear Pattern Houses align along features like roads, rivers, or canals.
2. Rectangular Pattern Common in flat areas or wide valleys, with roads intersecting at right angles.
3. Circular Pattern Villages form around lakes or tanks, with open central areas for animal protection.
4. Star-like Pattern Emerges where multiple roads converge, resulting in houses built along these roads.
5. T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped, or Cruciform Settlements Develop at road intersections, with houses extending in various directions.
6. Double Village Extends on both sides of a river, often facilitated by bridges or ferries.

Challenges Faced by Rural Settlements

1. Water Supply Inadequate access to clean water leads to long walks for villagers, exacerbating waterborne diseases, and complicating agricultural activities.
2. Sanitation and Waste Management Lack of proper sanitation facilities contributes to health issues and environmental degradation.
3. Housing and Infrastructure Vulnerable to natural disasters like floods, houses made of mud, wood, and thatch require regular maintenance. Poor ventilation and integration of animal shelters within homes pose additional challenges.
4. Transportation and Communication Unmetalled roads and limited communication networks hinder connectivity, especially during the rainy season, impeding access to emergency services and essential facilities.
5. Health and Education Infrastructure Scattered settlements and inadequate villagisation complicate the provision of healthcare and educational services, particularly in remote areas.

Addressing these challenges requires holistic planning and targeted interventions to improve the quality of life and foster sustainable development in rural communities.

2. Urbanization

The world is experiencing rapid growth in urban settlements. Until recently, most settlements were relatively small. London was the first city to reach a population of one million, around 1810. By 1982, that number had jumped to 175 cities globally. Today, nearly half (48%) of the world's population lives in urban areas, compared to just 3% in 1800.

Classification and Functions of Urban Settlements

Urban settlements are diverse and multifaceted, often classified based on various criteria such as population size, occupational structure, administration, location, and predominant functions. Understanding these classifications provides insights into the complexity of urban life.

Population Size Classification

• Urban areas' definitions vary globally, with population size being a common criterion.
• Countries set varying population thresholds to designate urban settlements, ranging from 1,500 to 30,000 individuals.
• Density and the share of non-agricultural workers are additional considerations in some countries like India.

Occupational Structure Classification

• Some nations, like India and Italy, consider the economic activities alongside population size when classifying urban settlements.
• Settlements with a significant portion of the population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits are often labelled as urban.

Administrative Classification

• Administrative setup influences urban classification in certain countries. For example, in India, any settlement with a municipality or Cantonment Board is classified as urban.
• Latin American nations, such as Brazil and Bolivia, consider settlements with administrative centres as urban, regardless of population size.

Location-based Classification

• Urban centres' locations are evaluated based on their functions, such as industrial, military, or port activities.
• Factors like defence, trade routes, and access to resources historically influenced urban settlement locations.
• Modern technology enables urbanization in areas distant from traditional resource hubs through advancements in infrastructure and transportation.

Functions of Urban Centers

• Urban settlements serve diverse functions, including administrative, commercial, cultural, and industrial roles.
• Dominant functions often define urban centres, such as administrative capitals (e.g., New Delhi), trading hubs (e.g., Frankfurt), or cultural pilgrimage sites (e.g., Mecca).
• Urban centres evolve, acquiring new functions to meet changing societal needs, such as health services, recreation, or industrial activities.

Categories of Urban Settlements

1. Administrative Towns: Capitals and regional administrative centres housing government offices.
2. Trading and Commercial Towns: Marketplaces, financial centres, and transport hubs facilitating trade and commerce.
3. Cultural Towns: Pilgrimage sites and cities of religious significance.
4. Additional Functions: Urban centres may also serve purposes like health services, recreation, industrial activities, or mining and quarrying.

Understanding the classification and functions of urban settlements is essential for urban planning, governance, and addressing the diverse needs of urban populations.

2.1. Classification of Urban Settlements Based on Forms

The physical layout and architectural style of urban settlements vary widely, influenced by historical, cultural, and geographical factors. Here, we explore the classification of towns based on their forms, exemplifying differences between developed and developing nations.

Contrasts in Urban Planning Urban centres in developed and developing countries often exhibit stark disparities in planning and development. While many cities in developed nations boast planned layouts, those in developing countries often evolve organically over time, resulting in irregular shapes. For instance, while cities like Chandigarh and Canberra adhere to planned designs, smaller towns in India have grown from historic walled cities into sprawling urban areas.

Examples of Unique Urban Forms Addis Ababa ("The New Flower"): Established in 1878, Ethiopia's capital sits atop a hill-valley terrain, influencing its road layout, which radiates from key landmarks like government headquarters and bustling marketplaces. Addis Ababa has rapidly expanded into an educational, commercial, and transportation hub, fostering growth and development at the heart of Ethiopia.

Canberra: Designed as Australia's capital in 1912 by Walter Burley Griffin, Canberra exemplifies a planned garden city concept. With its expansive green spaces and decentralized centres, Canberra has evolved to accommodate satellite towns, maintaining its aesthetic appeal and functionality.

Types of Urban Settlements Town: Distinct from villages, towns feature specific economic functions such as manufacturing, trade, and services. While population size is a factor, functional differences delineate towns from rural areas.

• City: Cities surpass towns in size and economic complexity, serving as regional hubs with diverse functions like transportation, finance, and administration. When populations exceed one million, they earn the designation of a "million city."
• Conurbation: Coined by Patrick Geddes, a conurbation refers to the merging of separate towns or cities into a contiguous urban area. Examples include Greater London and the Tokyo metropolitan region.
• Megalopolis: Originating from the Greek term for "great city," megalopolis denotes extensive urban regions formed by the union of multiple conurbations. The northeastern corridor of the United States, stretching from Boston to Washington, serves as a prominent example.

Challenges in Developing Countries Urban settlements in developing nations grapple with numerous challenges, including unsustainable population growth, inadequate housing, and infrastructure deficiencies. Issues such as limited access to clean water, electricity, sanitation, and healthcare exacerbate living conditions, highlighting the urgent need for comprehensive urban development initiatives.

2.2. Challenges Faced by Urban Settlements

Urban areas in developing countries confront a myriad of challenges stemming from rapid urbanization, inadequate infrastructure, and social disparities. 

Overcrowding and Housing Issues Urban migration due to employment prospects leads to severe congestion in unplanned cities. Shortage of housing results in vertical expansion and the proliferation of slums and squatter settlements. In India and many Asia Pacific cities, a significant proportion of the population resides in substandard housing, exacerbating urban poverty.

Economic Struggles The influx of migrants creates a surplus of unskilled and semi-skilled labour in urban areas, outpacing available employment opportunities. This leads to economic disparities and social challenges, particularly for the urban poor who lack access to basic services and face limited prospects for upward mobility.

Socio-cultural Disparities Insufficient financial resources hinder the development of social infrastructure, leaving basic needs unmet for a large urban population. Educational and health facilities remain inaccessible to many urban poor residents, contributing to health disparities and perpetuating cycles of poverty. Crime rates often rise due to unemployment and lack of educational opportunities.

Environmental Degradation The rapid urban population growth strains water resources and waste management systems. Inadequate sewerage and waste disposal lead to unhygienic conditions and pollution. The massive use of traditional fuels and improper waste management contribute to air and water pollution, posing health risks and environmental degradation.

Urban Strategy for Sustainable Development The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) emphasizes key priorities in its Urban Strategy:

• Increasing shelter for the urban poor.
• Provision of basic urban services like education, healthcare, and clean water.
• Improving women's access to essential services and government facilities.
• Upgrading energy use and promoting alternative transport systems to reduce pollution.
• Addressing rural-urban linkages and balancing economic, social, and environmental needs between urban and rural areas.

Rural-Urban Linkages Balancing the economic, social, and environmental needs between urban and rural areas is crucial for sustainable development. Eradicating rural poverty, creating employment opportunities, and improving living conditions in rural settlements can help alleviate the pressure on urban infrastructure caused by rapid urbanization.