THOMAS HOBBES

Thomas Hobbes, born in 1588 in Malmesbury, England, lived during a tumultuous period of political strife characterized by confrontation between monarchy and parliamentary government, culminating in the English Civil War. This era was marked by ceaseless chaos, fear, and insecurity, shaping Hobbes' views on human nature, the state of nature, sovereignty, and the social contract. Amidst this backdrop, there were proponents of both monarchical and parliamentary systems of government. Additionally, Hobbes lived during a period of significant scientific advancement, including the emergence of discoveries and theories such as Isaac Newton's theory of gravity, which had a profound impact across Europe.

Hobbes' seminal work, "Leviathan," stands as his most significant literary contribution, addressing themes central to political philosophy. In addition to "Leviathan," Hobbes authored other notable works such as "De Cive," "De Corpore," and "De Homine."

 1. Hobbes and Mechanical Materialism

• "Leviathan" stands as the cornerstone of Hobbes' political thought, heavily influenced by the scientific revolution sweeping across Europe during his time. Unlike the philosophical approach of thinkers like Plato and Aristotle or the historical approach of Machiavelli, Hobbes adopted a unique methodology for studying political science, drawing insights from physics, geometry, and psychology. He employed a framework of mechanical materialism, inspired by Galileo's Law of Motion and Euclid's geometry.
• Hobbes posited that everything in the universe is composed of matter, with particles in a perpetual state of motion. Drawing from psychology, he asserted that individuals harbour unlimited desires and attractions towards certain objects while experiencing repulsion towards others. In "Leviathan," he famously stated, "Human desires come to an end only after his death," emphasizing self-preservation as the paramount and fundamental desire of human beings. To secure self-preservation, individuals seek to acquire more power and influence.
• Utilizing geometric principles, Hobbes developed hypotheses about human nature akin to geometric proofs. While his reasoning and logic are compelling, his advocacy for absolute monarchy as the ideal form of government remains contentious and widely rejected.

2. Structure of Hobbes' Thought

(A) Human Nature

Hobbes likened his understanding of human nature to the principles of geometry, asserting that individuals, like geometric figures, are driven by inherent tendencies. According to him, every human being harboured unlimited desires, with these desires persisting until death. Individuals possess preferences and aversions, prompting them to enter into a social contract to alleviate the anarchic state of nature and ensure their self-preservation.

(B) State of Nature

The state of nature, as described by Hobbes, is characterized by several key features

1. Absence of state and government
2. Absence of moral standards
3. Absence of private property and cultural norms
4. Absence of laws and justice
5. Absence of societal structures In this state, individuals are engaged in perpetual conflict, leading to a sense of insecurity and a life that is poor, short, nasty, and brutish. The absence of any authority to regulate behaviour exacerbates this condition. Consequently, individuals seek to abandon the anarchy of the state of nature by employing their reason to establish a state through the social contract.

Critique: Hobbes' depiction of the state of nature has been criticized by scholars like Vaughan, who argue that individuals, though endangered in the state of nature, may become akin to slaves under the authority of the state. Additionally, Rousseau posits that the end of individualism coincides with the loss of freedom, challenging Hobbes' views on governance and individual liberty.

3. Hobbes's Concept of Natural Law and Social Contract

• Natural Law: Hobbes's theory of social contract is underpinned by his concept of natural law. Unlike the universal religious laws of medieval times, Hobbes's natural law is grounded in reason rather than a divine mandate. As a materialist thinker, Hobbes posits that the law of reason, or natural law, serves to prevent individuals from self-destructive behaviours. In his seminal work "Leviathan," Hobbes extensively elaborates on this concept, emphasizing its role in fostering security, peace, and meaning in life. The essence of natural law can be summarized as follows:

1. Pursuit of peace by all individuals.
2. Willingness to relinquish certain rights for the sake of broader peace and security.
3. Formation of a social contract.

• Social Contract: The concept of social contract is founded on the principles of natural law. It entails individuals coming together to establish a state. In Hobbes's words, individuals authorize a governing entity, whether an individual or an assembly, on the condition that this entity reciprocally relinquishes its rights and authorizes its actions similarly. According to Hobbes, people surrender their natural rights and powers to a supreme sovereign, typically a king, in pursuit of self-preservation. Both the state and the king emerge as outcomes of the social contract, rather than being parties to it. Hobbes's theory of social contract is grounded in reason, power, and utility, and it is primarily hypothetical rather than historical.
• Method of Contract: The formation of the state, society, and government is facilitated through a single contract, with self-preservation as the ultimate objective. These institutions are regarded as artificial constructs, and upon the dissolution of the social contract, individuals revert to a state of nature. After entering into the social contract, individuals relinquish all their rights and powers to the sovereign, retaining only the right to self-preservation.
• Mechanistic State: Hobbes's social contract theory posits that the state is not a natural or divine institution but rather an artificial creation designed by individuals for their self-preservation. The state is likened to a machine, serving utilitarian purposes by eradicating anarchy and ensuring societal order.

6. The Absolutist State

• Absolute Power of the State: Hobbes envisages the state as possessing absolute and indivisible power. The commands of the state carry the force of law, and its authority transcends moral, customary, or traditional constraints. The state's supremacy is unquestionable, and disobedience is deemed irrational and a threat to its security.
• Authoritarianism and Support for Absolute Rule: Individuals are obligated to submit to the authority of the state, even if it means sacrificing their rights. Hobbes's advocacy for absolute state power aligns him with authoritarianism, as he contends that any protest against the government is tantamount to a challenge to the people's consent and the security of the state.
• Subordination of Church to State: Hobbes subordinates the Church to the state, denying any institution or organization the right to enact laws contrary to the state's dictates. He advocates for governance based on fear of punishment, akin to Machiavelli's concept of statecraft.
• Monopolization of State Powers: Hobbes rejects the idea of separation of powers, advocating for the state to monopolize the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. He elevates the monarch to an immortal deity-like figure, with indivisible powers that transcend any limitations imposed by tradition, custom, or morality.
• Legal Sovereignty and Divine Right: In Hobbes's conception, the king is akin to a mortal god on earth, unbound by natural or divine laws. He lays the groundwork for the concept of legal sovereignty, later elaborated upon by thinkers like John Austin, which places the state's authority above all else.

7. Individualism in Hobbes's Political Thought

• Rationality of the Individual: Hobbes views individuals as rational beings capable of making calculated decisions. The foundation of his theory of government rests on the consent of these rational individuals. This acknowledgement of individual rationality lays the groundwork for liberal ideology.
• Ultimate Objective: Self-Preservation: Self-preservation emerges as the ultimate objective of individuals in Hobbes's framework. They are driven by the instinct to ensure their own survival and well-being, which forms the basis of their actions within society.
• Society as an Aggregation of Individuals: Hobbes conceptualizes society as merely an aggregation of individuals, each pursuing their own self-interest. This atomistic view of society underscores the primacy of the individual within the social fabric.
• Individualism as a Means to an End: According to Sabine, individualism serves as a means to the end of securing self-preservation. If the state fails to fulfil its duty of ensuring the safety and well-being of its citizens, it loses its legitimacy and no longer deserves obedience.
• State as an Artificial and Utilitarian Institution: Hobbes portrays the state as an artificial and utilitarian institution, rather than a divine or natural entity. This perspective aligns with Bentham's utilitarianism, as both thinkers emphasize the pragmatic functions of the state in maximizing utility and securing individual interests.

8. Foundation of Liberalism and Utilitarianism in Hobbes's Thought

• Rational Individualism: Hobbes's assertion that individuals are rational lays the groundwork for the philosophical underpinnings of liberalism. He rejected traditions, customs, and cultural norms, asserting that each individual knows their own interests best. This rationalist perspective aligns with liberal ideology, which emphasizes individual autonomy and rational decision-making.
• Self-Interest and Self-Preservation: Hobbes's portrayal of human nature as inherently selfish contributes to the utilitarian basis of his political thought. He acknowledges that individuals are primarily motivated by self-interest and self-preservation, which form the basis of their actions within society.
• Instrumental Role of the State: According to Hobbes, the state is an essential instrument for ensuring the self-preservation of individuals. This utilitarian perspective views the state as a means to maximize overall utility by securing the safety and well-being of its citizens.
• Consent and Social Contract: Hobbes argues that the state is not divinely ordained but arises from the consent of individuals. This contractual view of the state's legitimacy aligns with both liberal and utilitarian principles, as it emphasizes the importance of individual consent and the pursuit of collective utility.
• Limitations on Liberalism: Despite laying the groundwork for liberalism and utilitarianism, Hobbes's support for absolute state authority prevents him from being considered a liberal thinker. His advocacy for an all-powerful sovereign contradicts the liberal emphasis on limited government and individual rights.

9. Secular State in Hobbes's Political Thought

• Subordination of Church to State: Hobbes, a materialistic thinker, rejected the idea of the divine origin of the state and viewed the Church as a human creation. In line with his materialism, he considered the Church to be subordinate to the state. This perspective aligns with Machiavelli's concept of separating the Church from the state, as it promotes the idea of the state's supremacy over religious institutions.
• Freedom of Religious Choice: According to Hobbes, individuals have the freedom to choose their faith without interference from the state. The state does not dictate religious beliefs, allowing individuals to practice their chosen faith freely. This aspect of religious freedom is essential in a secular state where the government remains neutral regarding matters of religion.
• Role of the State in Religious Conflict: Hobbes recognized that religious beliefs are subjective and prone to conflict. To prevent such conflicts from destabilizing society, he advocated for the institutionalization of the state as the supreme authority. By maintaining control over religious matters, the state can effectively manage conflicts that arise from differing religious beliefs.
• Church as a Subordinate Institution: Hobbes considered the Church to be just another human institution, devoid of any divine authority. In his view, the state held ultimate power and authority, with all other institutions, including the Church, being subordinate to it. This hierarchical relationship ensures that the state remains the primary governing body, responsible for maintaining order and stability within society.

10. Democracy in Hobbes's Thought

While Hobbes's ideas are often perceived as anti-democratic due to his support for despotic kingship, there are democratic elements inherent in his political philosophy.

• Theory of Consent: Hobbes's theory of consent revolves around the idea of a social contract among individuals. This contract implies a form of democracy, as it involves the collective agreement of the people to establish the authority of the state.
• Utilitarian Function of the State: According to Hobbes, the primary function of the state is to preserve the lives of its citizens. This utilitarian approach aligns with democratic principles, as the state's purpose is to serve the interests and well-being of the people.
• Creation of State through Contract: Hobbes believed that the creation of the state, society, and government is the result of a contractual agreement among individuals. This notion implies democratic consent, as the establishment of political authority is based on the collective will of the people.
• Right to Resist Tyranny: If the state fails to fulfil its duty to protect the lives of its citizens, Hobbes argued that individuals are not obligated to obey its authority. This recognition of the right to resist tyranny echoes democratic principles of accountability and the protection of individual rights.
• Equality of Abilities: Hobbes was among the first thinkers to assert that all individuals possess equal physical and mental abilities. This acknowledgement of equality is foundational to democratic ideals of equal rights and opportunities for all citizens.

11. Macpherson's Critique of Hobbes

• In his work "The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism," Macpherson coined the term "possessive individualist" to describe thinkers like Hobbes and Locke. According to Macpherson, Hobbes can be seen as a proponent of capitalism and a supporter of market principles, particularly in his commodification of labour.
• Macpherson critiques Hobbes's concept of the state of nature, arguing that it reflects the characteristics of a capitalist society. He suggests that Hobbes constructed a hypothetical state of nature to provide legitimacy to capitalism. Furthermore, Macpherson views Hobbes's advocacy for absolute monarchic power as unreasonable, asserting that Hobbes supported a despotic and powerful king to safeguard the interests of the capitalist class and maintain peace and stability in society.
• According to Macpherson, without a powerful sovereign, the property of the capitalist class would be threatened and insecure. Thus, Hobbes's political theory, in Macpherson's view, serves to uphold the interests of the capitalist class and perpetuate the existing social order.