UPSC Topic Wise Notes - Upsc Exam Topic wise notes

India is located in South Asia and is bordered by several countries and bodies of water. India is situated between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N, and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. It spans a vast area of approximately 3.28 million square kilometers.

Neighboring Countries: India shares its borders with several countries

To the northwest, it shares a border with Pakistan.
To the north, it is bordered by China, Nepal, and Bhutan.
To the northeast, it shares boundaries with Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh.
To the east, it is bounded by the Bay of Bengal.
To the west, it is bordered by the Arabian Sea.
To the south, it is flanked by the Indian Ocean.

Peninsular Location: The majority of India's territory is situated on the Indian subcontinent, which is a large peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean. The southernmost point of the Indian mainland is the Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Geopolitical Region: India is often divided into several geopolitical regions based on its physical and cultural geography. These regions include Northern India, Southern India, Western India, Eastern India, and Central India.
Geological Features: India is characterized by diverse geological features, including the Himalayan mountain range in the north, the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain, the Deccan Plateau in the south, coastal plains along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, and numerous rivers, lakes, and forests.
Islands: India also includes several island territories located in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal, while the Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea off the southwestern coast of India.

India's strategic location in South Asia has played a significant role in its history, culture, and geopolitical dynamics. Its diverse landscape, proximity to major water bodies, and neighboring countries contribute to its economic and cultural significance in the region and the world.

3. Physiographic Sub-Units

India can be subdivided into several physiographic sub-units based on its diverse terrain and geological features. These sub-units include:

Himalayan Region: The Himalayan region is located in the northern part of India and is characterized by the majestic Himalayan mountain range. It includes three main ranges: the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas (or Siwalik Range). This region features some of the highest peaks in the world, including Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga. The Himalayas are known for their rugged terrain, deep valleys, glaciers, and rivers.
Indo-Gangetic Plain: The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a vast alluvial plain located in northern and eastern India, as well as parts of Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It is formed by the sedimentary deposits of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and other rivers originating from the Himalayas. The plain is characterized by fertile soil, flat terrain, and extensive agricultural activities. It is one of the most densely populated regions in the world.
Peninsular Plateau: The Peninsular Plateau, also known as the Deccan Plateau, covers a large part of southern India. It is composed of ancient rocks such as granite, gneiss, and basalt and is one of the oldest geological formations in India. The plateau is characterized by rugged terrain, hills, plateaus, and numerous rivers. It includes several major hill ranges, such as the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
Western Ghats: The Western Ghats are a prominent mountain range located along the western coast of India. They run parallel to the Arabian Sea and extend from the state of Gujarat in the north to the southern tip of India. The Western Ghats are known for their biodiversity hotspots, lush forests, and numerous rivers. They are also home to several hill stations and tourist destinations.
Eastern Ghats: The Eastern Ghats are a lesser-known mountain range located along the eastern coast of India. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal and extend from Odisha in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. The Eastern Ghats are lower in elevation compared to the Western Ghats and are more fragmented. They are known for their scenic beauty, waterfalls, and cultural heritage.
Coastal Plains: India has several coastal plains along its eastern and western coasts. These plains are formed by the sedimentary deposits of rivers and the action of waves and tides. They are characterized by low-lying areas, sandy beaches, estuaries, and mangrove forests. The Western Coastal Plain is narrower and more continuous, while the Eastern Coastal Plain is wider and fragmented by rivers and deltas.

These physiographic sub-units collectively contribute to India's diverse landscape, ecology, and cultural heritage. They influence the distribution of natural resources, climate patterns, and human settlement patterns across the country.

3.1. Himalayas

The Himalayas are a vast mountain range in Asia, stretching across several countries including India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. They are known as the tallest mountain range in the world and are home to some of the highest peaks, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth.

Geographical Extent: The Himalayas span approximately 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) from west to east, extending from the Indus River in Pakistan to the Brahmaputra River in northeastern India. The range covers five countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, China (Tibet), and Pakistan.
Mountain Ranges: The Himalayas consist of several parallel mountain ranges, including the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas (also known as the Siwalik Range). The Greater Himalayas, also called the "Himalayan Divide," contain the highest peaks and are characterized by rugged terrain and glaciers.
Highest Peaks: The Himalayas are home to numerous towering peaks, many of which exceed 8,000 meters (26,000 feet) in elevation. Mount Everest, located on the border between Nepal and China, is the highest peak in the world, standing at 8,848 meters (29,029 feet) above sea level. Other notable peaks include Kanchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, and Cho Oyu.
Glaciers: The Himalayas are known for their vast glaciers, which are critical sources of freshwater for millions of people in Asia. These glaciers feed major rivers such as the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, and Yangtze, which are lifelines for agriculture, hydropower, and human settlements in the region.
Biodiversity: The Himalayas are one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, home to a wide variety of plant and animal species. The region's diverse ecosystems range from subtropical forests in the foothills to alpine meadows and tundra at higher elevations. The Himalayan region supports iconic wildlife species such as the Bengal tiger, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, and various species of birds and plants.
Cultural Significance: The Himalayas hold immense cultural and spiritual significance for the people of South Asia. The region is revered in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions, with sacred sites such as Mount Kailash in Tibet and the Char Dham pilgrimage circuit in Uttarakhand, India. The Himalayas also serve as a natural barrier and cultural boundary, shaping the traditions, languages, and livelihoods of the communities living in their shadow.

The Himalayas are a breathtaking natural wonder, attracting adventurers, scientists, pilgrims, and nature enthusiasts from around the world. They play a vital role in regulating the climate, providing freshwater resources, and supporting rich biodiversity in the Indian subcontinent and beyond.

3.2. Northern Plains

The Northern Plains of India, also known as the Indo-Gangetic Plains, are a vast alluvial plain region located in the northern and northeastern parts of the Indian subcontinent. These plains are formed by the sedimentary deposits of the mighty rivers originating from the Himalayas, including the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries.

Geographical Extent: The Northern Plains stretch from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the edge of the Deccan Plateau in the south. They cover a vast area spanning several Indian states, including Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal, as well as parts of Nepal and Bangladesh.
Formation: The Northern Plains were formed by the deposition of sediments carried by the rivers flowing down from the Himalayas over millions of years. The fertile alluvial soil deposited by these rivers has made the region one of the most agriculturally productive areas in the world.
Fertile Soil: The soil of the Northern Plains is predominantly alluvial, rich in nutrients, and highly conducive to agriculture. The plains receive fertile silt deposits during the annual monsoon floods, replenishing the soil and supporting abundant crop growth. The region is known as the "Granary of India" due to its significant contribution to the country's agricultural output.
Cultural and Historical Significance: The Northern Plains have been the cradle of ancient civilizations and the birthplace of many influential cultures and religions. The region is dotted with numerous historical and archaeological sites, including the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization, as well as the ancient capitals of various Indian dynasties.
River Systems: The Northern Plains are intersected by several major river systems, including the Ganges, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries. These rivers not only provide water for irrigation and drinking but also serve as important transportation routes and sources of hydroelectric power.
Agricultural Economy: Agriculture is the primary economic activity in the Northern Plains, with the region producing a wide variety of crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, and vegetables. The fertile soil, coupled with abundant water resources from the rivers, supports multiple cropping seasons and high agricultural productivity.
Urbanization: The Northern Plains are home to some of the largest and most populous cities in India, including Delhi, Kolkata, Lucknow, Patna, and Kanpur. These cities serve as major economic, cultural, and political centers, contributing significantly to the region's development and growth.

The Northern Plains of India are characterized by their fertile soil, extensive agricultural activities, rich cultural heritage, and dense population. They play a crucial role in India's economy, food security, and cultural identity.

3.3. Peninsular Plateau

The Peninsular Plateau, also known as the Deccan Plateau, is a large plateau region in India that covers a significant portion of the southern peninsula. It is one of the oldest geological formations on the Indian subcontinent and is characterized by its rugged terrain, elevated plateaus, and diverse landscape.

Geographical Extent: The Peninsular Plateau extends across the southern part of India, covering states such as Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and parts of Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. It is bounded by the Western Ghats in the west, the Eastern Ghats in the east, and the Satpura and Vindhya mountain ranges in the north.
Formation: The Peninsular Plateau was formed through extensive volcanic activity, tectonic movements, and weathering processes over millions of years. It consists of ancient rocks such as granite, gneiss, and basalt, which were uplifted and eroded to create the plateau's distinctive landscape.
Elevation: The Peninsular Plateau has varying elevations, with average heights ranging from 300 to 900 meters above sea level. The plateau is relatively flat in some areas, while other parts feature rugged terrain, hills, and plateaus. The highest point on the plateau is Mahendragiri Peak in the Eastern Ghats, which rises to an elevation of 1,501 meters.
Rivers and Drainage: The Peninsular Plateau is crisscrossed by numerous rivers and their tributaries, which have carved out deep valleys and gorges over time. Some of the major rivers originating from the plateau include the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Tungabhadra. These rivers are lifelines for agriculture, irrigation, and human settlements in the region.
Biodiversity: The Peninsular Plateau supports a rich diversity of flora and fauna, including tropical forests, grasslands, and scrub vegetation. It is home to several wildlife sanctuaries and national parks, such as Bandipur National Park, Nagarhole National Park, and Periyar National Park, which protect endangered species like tigers, elephants, and leopards.
Cultural Heritage: The Peninsular Plateau is steeped in history and culture, with evidence of ancient civilizations, dynasties, and architectural wonders. The plateau is dotted with numerous historical sites, temples, and forts, including the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Hampi, Ajanta and Ellora Caves, and Pattadakal.
Mineral Resources: The Peninsular Plateau is rich in mineral resources such as iron ore, coal, manganese, limestone, and bauxite. Mining activities are prevalent in many parts of the plateau, contributing to the region's economy but also raising environmental concerns.

The Peninsular Plateau is a significant geographical feature of India, renowned for its geological diversity, natural beauty, and cultural heritage. It plays a vital role in the country's economy, environment, and cultural identity.

3.4. Thar Desert

The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a vast arid region located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is the largest desert in India and one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world.

Geographical Extent: The Thar Desert spans an area of approximately 200,000 square kilometers (77,000 square miles), covering parts of the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab, as well as the southeastern portion of Pakistan.
Terrain: The Thar Desert is characterized by its sandy terrain, rocky outcrops, and sparse vegetation. It features vast stretches of sand dunes, known locally as "dunes," which can reach heights of up to 150 meters (490 feet). The landscape is interspersed with salt flats, dry riverbeds (known as "nullahs" or "riverine channels"), and occasional oases.
Climate: The Thar Desert experiences a hot desert climate, with extremely high temperatures during the day and cooler temperatures at night. Summer temperatures often soar above 45°C (113°F), while winter temperatures can drop below freezing in some areas. Rainfall is scarce and irregular, averaging less than 250 millimeters (10 inches) annually.
Flora and Fauna: Despite its harsh conditions, the Thar Desert is home to a variety of plant and animal species that are adapted to desert life. Vegetation in the desert includes drought-resistant shrubs, grasses, and thorny bushes such as acacia and cactus. Wildlife in the region includes species such as the Indian gazelle (chinkara), desert fox, Indian bustard, and various reptiles and birds.
Human Settlements: The Thar Desert is sparsely populated, with scattered human settlements primarily located around oases and water sources. Traditional communities such as the Rajputs, Jats, and Bhils have inhabited the desert for centuries, practicing nomadic herding, agriculture, and trade. The desert is also home to several historic cities and towns, including Jaisalmer, Bikaner, and Jodhpur.
Economic Activities: Despite its arid environment, the Thar Desert supports a range of economic activities, including agriculture, animal husbandry, and tourism. Farmers in the region practice subsistence farming using traditional methods such as rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation. Livestock rearing, especially of camels, goats, and sheep, is also prevalent. Tourism has emerged as an important economic driver, with visitors attracted to the desert's unique landscapes, culture, and heritage.
Challenges: The Thar Desert faces various challenges, including water scarcity, soil erosion, and desertification. Rapid population growth, unsustainable agricultural practices, and climate change exacerbate these challenges, posing threats to the fragile desert ecosystem and the livelihoods of local communities.

The Thar Desert is a fascinating and diverse ecosystem, characterized by its harsh yet captivating landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and unique biodiversity. Despite its challenges, the desert continues to be a source of resilience and adaptation for the people and wildlife that call it home.

3.5. Coastal Plain

In India, coastal plains are significant geographical features that stretch along the country's extensive coastline, which extends for approximately 7,500 kilometers along the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. These coastal plains are characterized by their flat, low-lying terrain and are home to diverse ecosystems, human settlements, and economic activities.

Western Coastal Plains: Also known as the Konkan Coast or Malabar Coast, the Western Coastal Plains run parallel to the Arabian Sea along the western coast of India. They extend from the Gujarat coast in the north to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula in Kerala. The Western Coastal Plains are relatively narrow in the north but widen considerably towards the south. They are characterized by fertile alluvial soil, lush vegetation, and numerous rivers and backwaters. Major cities and ports located along the Western Coastal Plains include Mumbai, Mangalore, and Kochi.
Eastern Coastal Plains: The Eastern Coastal Plains run parallel to the Bay of Bengal along the eastern coast of India. They extend from the state of West Bengal in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south, covering the coastal states of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. The Eastern Coastal Plains are broader and more extensive than their western counterparts and are characterized by deltas, estuaries, and lagoons formed by rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, and Mahanadi. The region is known for its rich agricultural land, with crops such as rice, sugarcane, and coconut being cultivated extensively. Major cities and ports along the Eastern Coastal Plains include Visakhapatnam, Chennai, and Paradip.
Gujarat Coastal Plain: Located in the state of Gujarat, the Gujarat Coastal Plain lies along the Arabian Sea coast in western India. It is characterized by sandy beaches, tidal marshes, and mangrove forests. The Gujarat Coastal Plain is economically significant, with industries such as fishing, salt production, and tourism contributing to the region's economy. Major cities and ports along the Gujarat Coastal Plain include Kandla, Jamnagar, and Surat.
Coromandel Coastal Plain: The Coromandel Coastal Plain is located along the southeastern coast of India, encompassing parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry. It is characterized by sandy beaches, dunes, and coastal wetlands. The Coromandel Coastal Plain is known for its cultural heritage, with historic temples, palaces, and monuments dotting the coastline. Major cities and ports along the Coromandel Coast include Chennai, Visakhapatnam, and Puducherry.

These coastal plains play a crucial role in India's economy, supporting agriculture, fishing, trade, and tourism. They are also vulnerable to natural hazards such as cyclones, storm surges, and sea-level rise, highlighting the importance of sustainable coastal management and disaster preparedness measures.

3.6. The Islands

India is home to several islands, each with its unique geographical, ecological, and cultural characteristics. These islands are located in different parts of the country and contribute to India's rich biodiversity and maritime heritage.

Andaman Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Islands form an archipelago of over 500 islands, of which around 37 are inhabited. The main islands include North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, and Little Andaman. The Andaman Islands are known for their pristine beaches, coral reefs, and lush tropical forests. The capital city, Port Blair, serves as the administrative and tourist hub of the islands. Major attractions in the Andaman Islands include Radhanagar Beach, Cellular Jail National Memorial, and Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park.
Nicobar Islands: Situated further south in the Bay of Bengal, the Nicobar Islands are a group of 22 islands, of which only 12 are inhabited. The Nicobar Islands are known for their rich biodiversity, including endemic species of flora and fauna. The indigenous Nicobarese people inhabit these islands, practicing traditional hunting, fishing, and agriculture. The Nicobar Islands are less developed than the Andaman Islands and are primarily visited for ecotourism and adventure activities.
Lakshadweep Islands: Located in the Arabian Sea off the southwestern coast of India, the Lakshadweep Islands comprise 36 islands, of which only a few are inhabited. The main islands include Minicoy, Agatti, and Kavaratti. The Lakshadweep Islands are known for their stunning coral reefs, turquoise lagoons, and coconut palm-fringed beaches. The islands are inhabited by the indigenous Muslim community known as the Lakshadweep Islanders. Tourism is the primary economic activity in Lakshadweep, with visitors attracted to its pristine marine environment and water sports opportunities.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands: These islands are a union territory of India, administered by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Administration. They have strategic importance due to their location near international shipping routes and their proximity to Southeast Asia. The islands are also home to various indigenous tribes, including the Jarawa, Sentinalese, and Great Andamanese, who have lived in isolation for thousands of years.
Diu: Located off the coast of Gujarat in the Arabian Sea, Diu is a small island known for its historic forts, churches, and Portuguese colonial architecture. Diu is a popular tourist destination, offering beaches, water sports, and cultural attractions.

These islands contribute to India's cultural diversity, economic development, and environmental conservation efforts. They also play a significant role in India's maritime security and strategic interests in the Indian Ocean region.

4. Mountain System

India is home to several mountain ranges and systems, each with its unique geological features, ecological significance, and cultural importance. These mountain systems influence the country's climate, biodiversity, and socio-economic development.

Himalayan Mountain Range: The Himalayas form the northern boundary of India and are one of the highest and youngest mountain ranges in the world. They extend over 2,400 kilometers from west to east, spanning several states including Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. The Himalayas are divided into three parallel ranges:

Greater Himalayas (or Himadri): This range includes some of the highest peaks in the world, including Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, and Nanda Devi. It is characterized by rugged terrain, glaciers, and permanent snow cover.
Middle Himalayas (or Himachal): Also known as the Lesser Himalayas, this range consists of lower peaks and valleys, with prominent hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, and Manali.
Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks): The youngest range of the Himalayas, the Shiwaliks are characterized by foothills, dissected terrain, and alluvial plains. They serve as an important water source and support diverse flora and fauna.

Western Ghats: Also known as the Sahyadri Mountains, the Western Ghats run parallel to the western coast of India, stretching from Gujarat in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south. This mountain range is known for its rich biodiversity, with dense forests, waterfalls, and endemic species of plants and animals. The Western Ghats are designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and are home to several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Eastern Ghats: The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains and hills that run parallel to the eastern coast of India, covering states such as Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Although not as high as the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats are significant for their mineral deposits, forests, and agricultural lands.

Aravalli Range: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest mountain ranges in India, running across the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. It extends from southwest to northeast and serves as a natural barrier between the Thar Desert and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Aravallis are known for their scenic beauty, wildlife, and historical landmarks.

Vindhya Range: The Vindhya Range is a discontinuous range of hills and plateaus located primarily in central India, spanning states such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. The Vindhya Range separates the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Deccan Plateau and is known for its mineral wealth, forests, and archaeological sites.

These mountain ranges and systems play a crucial role in shaping India's geography, climate, and biodiversity. They are also important cultural and spiritual landmarks, with many revered pilgrimage sites and cultural traditions associated with them.

4.1. Classification of The Himalayan System

The Himalayan System, also known simply as the Himalayas, is a vast mountain range in Asia that spans several countries, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Pakistan. It is divided into several subranges and ranges based on geographical features, geological formations, and cultural distinctions.

Greater Himalayas (Himadri): Also known as the "Himadri" or "Inner Himalayas," this is the highest and northernmost range in the Himalayan System. It comprises some of the tallest peaks in the world, including Mount Everest (Sagarmatha/Chomolungma), Kanchenjunga, and Nanda Devi. The Greater Himalayas are characterized by towering snow-capped peaks, glaciers, and deep valleys. This range acts as a natural barrier, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
Middle Himalayas (Himachal): Also referred to as the "Himachal" or "Lesser Himalayas," this range lies to the south of the Greater Himalayas. It consists of lower peaks and valleys compared to the Greater Himalayas. The Middle Himalayas are characterized by dense forests, alpine meadows, and hill stations. Popular hill stations such as Shimla, Mussoorie, and Manali are located in this range.
Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks): Also known as the "Shiwaliks" or "Sub-Himalayan Range," this is the southernmost range in the Himalayan System. It lies to the south of the Middle Himalayas and acts as a transitional zone between the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Outer Himalayas are characterized by foothills, dissected terrain, and alluvial plains. They are known for their rich biodiversity and fertile agricultural lands.
Trans-Himalayas: This region lies to the north of the Greater Himalayas and comprises the Tibetan Plateau and associated mountain ranges. It includes the Ladakh Range, Karakoram Range, and Zanskar Range. The Trans-Himalayas are characterized by high-altitude plateaus, barren landscapes, and cold desert conditions. They are sparsely populated and are home to unique flora and fauna adapted to extreme environments.
Purvanchal Himalayas: Also known as the "Eastern Himalayas," this subrange extends from Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Nepal and Sikkim in the west. It includes several prominent peaks such as Kangchenjunga, the third highest peak in the world. The Purvanchal Himalayas are characterized by dense forests, deep river valleys, and cultural diversity.

These classifications provide a framework for understanding the diverse topography, ecosystems, and cultural landscapes of the Himalayan region. Each subrange and range within the Himalayan System contributes to the region's ecological significance, geological history, and cultural heritage.

4.2. Regional Division of the Himalayas

The Himalayas, one of the most prominent mountain ranges in the world, are divided into several regions based on their geographical location, geological features, and cultural characteristics.

Western Himalayas

This region encompasses the westernmost part of the Himalayas, stretching from Jammu and Kashmir in India to northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
Major ranges in this region include the Pir Panjal Range, Zanskar Range, and Dhauladhar Range.
The Western Himalayas are known for their rugged terrain, deep valleys, and high-altitude plateaus. They are also home to several glaciers and alpine lakes.

Central Himalayas

The Central Himalayas cover the central part of the Himalayan range, extending from Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in India to western Nepal.
Major ranges in this region include the Garhwal Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, and Langtang Range.
The Central Himalayas are characterized by towering peaks, deep gorges, and dense forests. They are a popular destination for trekking, mountaineering, and wildlife tourism.

Eastern Himalayas

This region encompasses the easternmost part of the Himalayas, stretching from eastern Nepal to Bhutan, northeastern India (Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim), and southeastern Tibet (China).
Major ranges in this region include the Kangchenjunga Range, Sikkim Himalayas, and Arunachal Himalayas.
The Eastern Himalayas are known for their rich biodiversity, including endemic species of flora and fauna. They are also culturally diverse, with various indigenous communities inhabiting the region.

Trans-Himalayas

The Trans-Himalayas lie to the north of the main Himalayan range and include the Tibetan Plateau and associated mountain ranges.
Major ranges in this region include the Karakoram Range, Ladakh Range, and Kailash Range.
The Trans-Himalayas are characterized by high-altitude plateaus, barren landscapes, and cold desert conditions. They are sparsely populated and are home to unique ecosystems adapted to extreme environments.

Sub-Himalayas (Shiwaliks)

The Sub-Himalayas, also known as the Shiwalik Range, lie to the south of the main Himalayan range and act as a transitional zone between the mountains and the plains.
This region includes foothills, alluvial plains, and forested areas.
The Sub-Himalayas are known for their rich agricultural lands, wildlife habitats, and cultural heritage.

This regional division helps in understanding the diverse topography, ecosystems, and cultural landscapes of the Himalayas. Each region within the Himalayan range has its unique characteristics and contributes to the overall ecological and cultural diversity of the region.

5. The Peninsular - Peninsular Plateaus

The Peninsular Plateau, also known as the Peninsular India Plateau or the Deccan Plateau, is a large elevated landmass located in southern India. It is one of the oldest and most stable geological formations on Earth, dating back millions of years. The plateau covers a vast area, extending from the Satpura Range in the north to the Nilgiri Hills in the south, and from the Western Ghats in the west to the Eastern Ghats in the east.

Geological Formation

The Peninsular Plateau is primarily composed of ancient crystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, and schist, which were formed through volcanic and tectonic processes.
It is believed to have been formed during the Precambrian era, between 3.6 billion and 570 million years ago, through the consolidation of the Archaean and Proterozoic rocks.

Physical Features

The plateau is characterized by a gently undulating topography, with flat-topped hills, low-lying plains, and occasional scarps and escarpments.
It has an average elevation of around 600 to 900 meters above sea level, although there are several higher peaks and ridges within the plateau.

River Systems

The Peninsular Plateau is drained by several major river systems, including the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Mahanadi rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats and flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
These rivers have carved deep valleys and gorges in the plateau, creating fertile alluvial plains and supporting extensive agriculture.

Climate and Vegetation

The climate of the Peninsular Plateau varies from tropical to subtropical, with hot summers and moderate to cool winters.
The plateau supports diverse vegetation types, including dry deciduous forests, thorn forests, scrublands, and grasslands. However, large areas of the plateau have been cleared for agriculture and human settlements.

Mineral Resources

The Peninsular Plateau is rich in mineral resources, including iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and limestone. These minerals are extensively mined and contribute significantly to India's industrial development.

Cultural Significance

The plateau is home to several ancient civilizations and historical landmarks, including the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, and the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram.
It has also been a cradle of Indian art, architecture, and literature, with many ancient kingdoms and dynasties flourishing in the region.

The Peninsular Plateau is a crucial geographical and cultural region in India, with its diverse landscapes, rich natural resources, and historical heritage shaping the socio-economic development of the country.

6. Plains - Northern Plains of India

The Northern Plains of India, also known as the Indo-Gangetic Plains, are a vast and fertile plain region located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. Stretching from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhya Range in the south, these plains cover a significant portion of India's land area and are one of the most densely populated regions in the world.

Geographical Extent

The Northern Plains extend from the eastern states of Assam and West Bengal in the east to the western states of Punjab and Haryana in the west.
They are bordered by the Himalayas in the north and the Central Highlands and Plateaus in the south.

Formation

The Northern Plains were formed by the deposition of sediments carried by major rivers, including the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra, over millions of years.
These rivers originate in the Himalayas and carry large volumes of sediment, which is deposited on the plains during the monsoon season, creating fertile alluvial soil.

Physical Features

The Northern Plains are characterized by flat and level terrain, with gentle slopes and few natural barriers.
The region is crisscrossed by numerous rivers and their tributaries, which create a network of waterways that support agriculture and transportation.

Climate and Agriculture

The climate of the Northern Plains is characterized by hot summers, cool winters, and a distinct monsoon season from June to September.
The fertile alluvial soil and abundant water supply from rivers make the plains highly conducive to agriculture. They are the breadbasket of India and produce a variety of crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane, and cotton.

Urbanization and Industrialization:

The Northern Plains are home to several major cities, including Delhi, Kolkata, Lucknow, and Chandigarh, which are centers of commerce, industry, and government.
The region has undergone rapid urbanization and industrialization in recent decades, with the establishment of manufacturing industries, service sectors, and infrastructure projects.

Cultural Significance

The Northern Plains have been the cradle of several ancient civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic civilization.
The region is dotted with numerous historical and cultural landmarks, including ancient cities, monuments, temples, and forts, which reflect the rich heritage and diversity of India.

The Northern Plains of India are a vital geographical and cultural region, playing a significant role in the socio-economic development and cultural heritage of the country.

7. Lakes

Hollows of land where water accumulates exhibit considerable variation in size, shape, depth, and permanence. From expansive water bodies like the Caspian Sea, measuring 760 miles in length with a depth of 3,215 feet, to temporary or permanent freshwater lakes such as Lake Geneva and the Great Lakes of America, these features play a crucial role in Earth's geography.

Types of Lakes

Inland Drainage: Regions with low precipitation and intense evaporation often result in lakes with high salinity, like the Dead Sea. Conversely, lakes with low salinity, such as the Black Sea, receive numerous rivers.
Desert Lakes: Playas, characteristic of desert regions, may dry up due to unreliable rainfall. In hot deserts, lakes disappear through evaporation, percolation, and outflow.

Formation of Lakes

Earth Movement

Tectonic Lakes: Earth movements, including warping, sagging, bending, and fracturing, contribute to the formation of lakes such as Lake Titicaca (in the intermontane plateau of the Andes) and the Caspian Sea, the world's largest lake.
Rift Valley Lakes: Lakes like Tanganyika, Malawi, and the Dead Sea result from faulting and sinking of land within the East African Rift Valley.

Glacial Formation

Cirque Lakes: These lakes, formed by glacial erosion, include armchair-shaped tarns like Red Tarn in the Lake District and ribbon lakes like Lake Ullswater.
Kettle Lakes: Irregular lakes on morainic surfaces, formed by the melting of stagnant ice, are exemplified by the meres of Shropshire and Orkney.
Rock-Hollow Lakes: Ice scouring by glaciers creates lakes found in Finland, a country often referred to as the "land of lakes."

Volcanic Activity

Crater and Caldera Lakes: Volcanic explosions contribute to the formation of lakes like Crater Lake in the USA, Lake Toba in North Sumatra, and Lake Avernus near Naples.
Lava Blocked Lake: Solidification of lava in volcanic areas forms lakes like the Sea of Galilee in the Jordan Valley.
Subsidence of Volcanic Land Surface: Shallow depressions like Myvatn in Iceland result from the subsidence of volcanic land surfaces.

Erosion and Solution

Karst Lakes: Rainwater's solvent action on limestone carves solution hollows, leading to long, narrow lakes as seen in Lac de Chaillexon in the Jura Mountains.
Wind-Deflated Lakes: Deserts create playas and salt lakes through wind deflation, such as the Qattara Depression in Egypt and the Great Basin in Utah.

Depositional Features

River Deposits: Oxbow lakes formed in floodplains by river deposits, like those in the Mississippi and Rio Grande regions.
Marine Deposits: Isolated lagoons formed by spits and bars, often found in deltas like those of the Nile and Ganga rivers.

Human and Biological Activities

Man-made Lakes: Artificial lakes created by concrete dams and reservoirs, like Lake Mead above Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, serve various purposes.
Animal-created lakes: Beaver activity results in lakes like Beaver Lake in Yellowstone National Park, USA.

Lakes and Their Impact

Great Lakes, such as the St. Lawrence waterways in the USA, serve as vital arteries of commerce.
Lakes influence the establishment of early settlements, town sites, industries, and transportation routes, as evident in the Yangtze Basin's development in China.
Lakes like Thirlmere, Katrine, Vyrnwy, and Okhla Reservoir play crucial roles in supplying domestic water to cities like Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Delhi.
Lakes such as the Niagara River, Catawba River, and Abu Bakar Dam contribute to hydroelectric power production in different regions.
Dams for irrigation, like Sennar Dam and Hirakund Dam, facilitate agricultural activities but may suffer from defects.
Lakes help maintain steady river flows by absorbing excess water during the rainy season, impacting regions like the Yangtze Kiang, Tonle Sap, and artificial reservoirs.
Lakes influence local climates, with milder winters observed in regions east of Lake Erie, Ontario, and Huron. They also impact cloudiness, as seen in regions around large lakes like Lake Michigan and the Caspian Sea.
Lakes provide a source of protein through freshwater fish, and some, like the Caspian Sea, yield minerals like common salt, borax, and gypsum.
Scenic lakes, including Lake Geneva, Lucerne, Lugano, Como, Placid, Vaner, Vatter, and Taiping, attract tourists and serve as health resorts.

Important lakes in India

India is home to numerous lakes, each with its unique features, ecological significance, and cultural importance.

Wular Lake: Located in Jammu and Kashmir, Wular Lake is the largest freshwater lake in India and one of the largest in Asia. It is formed by the Jhelum River and serves as a crucial habitat for migratory birds and fish species.
Dal Lake: Situated in Srinagar, Dal Lake is famous for its stunning natural beauty, houseboats, and floating gardens. It is a major tourist attraction and an important source of livelihood for the local community.
Chilika Lake: Located in Odisha, Chilika Lake is the largest brackish water lagoon in India and the second largest in the world. It is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance and a biodiversity hotspot, home to numerous bird species, including migratory birds.
Loktak Lake: Situated in Manipur, Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. It is known for its phumdis or floating islands, which are unique habitats supporting diverse flora and fauna.
Vembanad Lake: Located in Kerala, Vembanad Lake is the longest lake in India and the largest in the state. It is a significant backwater tourism destination and supports a rich ecosystem of mangroves, wetlands, and aquatic life.
Pangong Tso: Situated in Ladakh, Pangong Tso is a high-altitude saline lake known for its mesmerizing blue waters and breathtaking mountainous backdrop. It is a popular tourist destination and a haven for birdwatchers and adventure enthusiasts.
Nainital Lake: Located in Uttarakhand, Nainital Lake is a natural freshwater lake surrounded by hills. It is a popular tourist destination and the centerpiece of the hill station of Nainital.
Pushkar Lake: Situated in Rajasthan, Pushkar Lake is a sacred Hindu pilgrimage site and one of the most revered lakes in India. It is believed to have been created by Lord Brahma and is surrounded by numerous temples and ghats.
Bhimtal Lake: Located in Uttarakhand, Bhimtal Lake is a scenic freshwater lake known for its tranquil surroundings and recreational activities such as boating and kayaking.
Pookode Lake: Situated in Kerala's Wayanad district, Pookode Lake is a picturesque freshwater lake surrounded by lush greenery. It is a popular tourist spot offering boating facilities and nature walks.

8. Deserts

Deserts are arid landscapes characterized by low precipitation levels and sparse vegetation. They cover about one-third of the Earth's land surface and are found across all continents except Europe. Deserts are often defined by their extreme temperatures, limited water availability, and unique flora and fauna adapted to harsh environmental conditions. India is home to several desert regions, each with its own unique characteristics and ecosystems. The major deserts in India are:

Thar Desert (Great Indian Desert): The Thar Desert is the largest desert in India and one of the largest subtropical deserts in the world. It spans the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, covering parts of the Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana, as well as portions of Pakistan. The Thar Desert is characterized by rolling sand dunes, rocky terrain, and sparse vegetation. Despite its arid climate, the Thar Desert supports a diverse range of flora and fauna, including desert plants like cacti and thorny shrubs, as well as animals like the Indian gazelle (chinkara), desert fox, and various species of birds.
Cold Desert of Ladakh: Located in the northernmost region of India, the Cold Desert of Ladakh is a high-altitude desert situated in the Trans-Himalayan region of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It encompasses the districts of Leh and Kargil and experiences extreme cold temperatures during the winter months. The landscape of the Cold Desert of Ladakh is characterized by barren mountains, rocky terrain, and sparse vegetation. Despite its harsh conditions, the region is inhabited by hardy communities of people and supports wildlife such as the elusive snow leopard.
Kutch Desert (Rann of Kutch): The Kutch Desert, also known as the Rann of Kutch, is located in the westernmost part of Gujarat, bordering Pakistan. It is a seasonal salt marsh that undergoes dramatic changes in landscape with the changing seasons. During the dry season, the Rann of Kutch consists of vast expanses of salt flats and cracked earth, while the wet season sees the area submerged in water. The Kutch Desert is home to unique wildlife species such as the Indian wild ass (khur), as well as migratory birds that flock to the region during the winter months.

These deserts play a significant role in India's ecology, culture, and biodiversity. They are important habitats for a variety of plant and animal species, as well as centers of traditional livelihoods for local communities. Additionally, they attract tourists from around the world who come to explore their unique landscapes and experience their rich cultural heritage.

9. Indian Coasts and Islands

India has a diverse coastline that spans approximately 7,500 kilometers, bordering the Arabian Sea to the west, the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Along this coastline lie various coastal features, including beaches, cliffs, estuaries, and mangrove forests. Additionally, India is home to several islands, each with its unique ecological, cultural, and geographical characteristics.

Western Coast: The western coast of India runs along the Arabian Sea and is known for its picturesque beaches, rocky cliffs, and coastal plains. Major cities and ports along the western coast include Mumbai (Maharashtra), Goa, Mangalore (Karnataka), Kochi (Kerala), and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu). The Konkan Coast, Malabar Coast, and Coromandel Coast are notable sub-regions along the western coast.
Eastern Coast: The eastern coast of India is bordered by the Bay of Bengal and features a mix of sandy beaches, deltas, and mangrove forests. Major cities and ports along the eastern coast include Kolkata (West Bengal), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), and Puducherry. The coastline is characterized by the deltas of major rivers such as the Ganges, Godavari, and Krishna.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are an archipelago consisting of around 572 islands, of which only a few are inhabited. These islands are known for their pristine beaches, coral reefs, and rich biodiversity. Port Blair is the capital and largest city of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Lakshadweep Islands: Situated in the Arabian Sea, the Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 36 coral islands known for their turquoise lagoons, coral reefs, and marine biodiversity. Only a few of the islands are inhabited, with Kavaratti serving as the administrative capital. The islands are known for their unique culture, cuisine, and traditional watercraft such as the dhoni.
Gulf of Kutch: Located along the western coast of Gujarat, the Gulf of Kutch is known for its expansive salt marshes and mangrove forests. It is home to the Marine National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its diverse marine life, including dolphins, dugongs, and sea turtles.

These coasts and islands contribute significantly to India's economy, tourism industry, and cultural heritage. They provide habitats for diverse marine and terrestrial species, support traditional livelihoods of coastal communities, and attract tourists from around the world seeking to explore their natural beauty and cultural diversity.

Previous Year Questions

1. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2023)

	Port	Well known as
1.	Kamarajar Port	First major port in India registered as a company
2.	Mundra Port	Largest privately owned port in India
3.	Visakhapatnam	Largest container port in Port India

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) All three pairs (d) None of the pairs

Answer: B

2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)

1. India has more arable area than China.

2. The proportion of irrigated area is more in India as compared to China.

3. The average productivity per hectare in Indian agriculture is higher than that in China.

How many of the above statements are correct?

(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

Answer: B

3. Gandikota canyon of South India was created by which one of the following rivers? (UPSC 2022)

(a) Cauvery (b) Manjira (c) Pennar (d) Tungabhadra

Answer: C

Mains

1. Comment on the resource potentials of the long coastline of India and highlight the status of natural hazard preparedness in these areas. (UPSC 2023)

2. From being net food importer in 1960, India has emerged as a net food exporter to the world. Provide reasons. (UPSC 2023)

3. Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for cyclone prone areas given by India Meteorological Department. (UPSC 2022)

4. Examine the potential of wind energy in India and explain the reasons for their limited spatial spread. (UPSC 2022)

5. Why is India considered as a subcontinent? Elaborate your answer. (UPSC 2021)

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

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