IMPERIAL CHOLAS

After the decline of the Sangam Period, the Cholas became feudatories on Uraiyur. They became prominent in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital was Tanjore. They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called the Imperial Cholas. The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a temple for Durga. Famous Nataraja Temple.

1. Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.)

It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power reached its highest point of glory. His military conquests were:

• The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravi Varman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the Chera navy.
• The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and the establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country.
• The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore region.
• The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I.
• As the Sri Lankan King Mahinda V fled away from his country, the Cholas annexed northern Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built.
• The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence the Chola power extended up to the river Tungabhadra.
• The restoration of the Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
• Raja Raja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldives Islands which were conquered. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.

2. Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his father’s campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquest and expansion. His important wars were:

1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas in the northern part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the western Chalukya king and the river Tungabhadra was recognized as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating several rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvarman temple in that city. He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the Western side of the city.
5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult to pinpoint the real object of the expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval expedition was a complete success. Several places were occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and no permanent annexation of these places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire intact. He was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram. He made liberal endowments to this temple and the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.

3. Chola Administration

Central Government

• The Cholas had an excellent system of administration.
• The emperor or king was at the top of the administration.
• The extended resources of the Chola Empire increased the Power and Prestige of the monarchy.
• The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king.
• They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
• There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called Perundanam and Sirudanam.

Revenue

• The land revenue department was well organized.
• It was called puravuvarithinaikkalam.
• All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue.
• The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam.
• These and other lands such as the lands belonging to the temple were exempted from tax.
• Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
• During the hard times, there was remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.
• The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.

Military Administration

• The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
• About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
• The royal troops were called Kaikkoaperumpadai.
• Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
• Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed.
• The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
• The naval achievements of the Tamils reached their climax under the Cholas. They controlled the Malabar and Coromandel coasts.
• In fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for some time.

Provincial administration

• The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam was into vanadous and Nadus.
• In each nadu there were several autonomous villages.
• The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
• The Valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
• The town was known as Nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.

Village Assemblies

• The system of village autonomy with sabha and their committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the Chola rule.
• Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village councils.
• That village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council.

The qualifications to become a ward member were:

1. Ownership of at least one-fourth veli of land.
2. Own residence.
3. Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
4. Knowledge of Vedas.

However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:

1. Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
2. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
3. Those who had committed sins.
4. Those who had stolen the property of others.

• From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by the kudavolai system for a year.
• The names of eligible persons were written on palm leaves and put into a pot.
• A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward.
• They were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam andpuravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village administration.
• The committee members were called variyapperumakkal.
• They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.
• The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.

4. Socio-Economic life

• The caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period. Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
• The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention two major divisions among the castes – Valangaiand Idangaicastes.
• However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social land religious life.
• The position of women did not improve.
• The practice of sati was prevalent among the royal families.
• The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period.
• Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period.
• Several temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
• The temples remained centres of economic activity during this period.
• The matha-shad great influence during this period. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
• Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity.
• The weaving industry, particularly the silk weaving at Kanchi flourished.
• The metal works developed owing to the great demand for images for temples and utensils.
• Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhisand merchant guilds. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty in various denominations. Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
• Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.

5. Education and Literature

• Education was also given importance.
• Besides the temples and Mathasas educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished.
• The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges that existed in these places.
• Apart from the Vedas and Epics, Subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions.
• Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.

6. Art and Architecture

• The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas.
• They built enormous temples.
• The chief feature of the Chola temple is the Vimana. The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirapalli district.
• The big temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and architecture.
• It consists of the Vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa.
• Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple Chola Bronze architecture is the Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
• The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.
• The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture.
• The walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution.
• The bronze of the Chola period is world-famous.
• The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are masterpieces.
• The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.