The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, also known as the Laurentian climate, is characterized by an intermediate climate between the British and Siberian climates. It exhibits both maritime and continental influences and is found in two distinct regions:

1. North American Region

   • Includes the Northeastern USA (Maritime Province, New England) and Newfoundland.
   • Features a blend of maritime and continental characteristics.
   • The climate is influenced by the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean.

2. Asiatic Region

   • Encompasses Eastern Asia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China, Manchuria, Korea, and Northern Japan.
   • Similar to the North American Region, it experiences a combination of maritime and continental influences.
   • Extends across parts of Asia with diverse geographical features.

General Characteristics

• Intermediate Climate: Positioned between the milder British climate and the colder Siberian climate.
• Maritime and Continental Influence: The climate is influenced by both the ocean (maritime) and the land (continental).
• Southern Hemisphere Absence: Not found in the Southern Hemisphere due to factors such as small continental sections, oceanic influence, and an equable climate.

The climate characteristics of the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, focusing on both the North American and Asiatic regions:

General Climate Characteristics

• Cold Dry Winters: Winters are characterized by temperatures below freezing point, with dry westerlies originating from continental interiors.
• Warm Wet Summers: Summers are warm and wet, featuring a cooling effect from offshore cold currents.
• Year-Round Rainfall: Rainfall is distributed throughout the year.
• Distinct Summer Maximum: The presence of easterly winds from oceans results in a distinct summer maximum in precipitation.
• Annual Precipitation: Ranges from 30 to 60 inches, with approximately 2/3 of the precipitation occurring in summers.

North American Region

• Uniform Rainfall: The North American region experiences uniform rainfall influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes.
• Gulf Stream Influence: The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture content of easterly winds from the open Atlantic.
• Westerlies and Great Lakes: Westerlies across the Rockies carry depressions over the Great Lakes to the New England States, promoting wet conditions in winters.
• Mixing of Warm Gulf Stream and Cold Labrador Current: This mixing produces mist, fog, and increased precipitation.
• Newfoundland Specifics: Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than any other part of the world.
• Summer Conditions: During summers, westerlies bring less depression, and continental influence extends to the coast. The temperature range is 74°F to 104°F, with high relative humidity and prolonged heat waves.

Asiatic Region

• Cold and Dry Winters: Winters in the Asiatic region are cold and dry.
• Warm and Wet Summers: Summers are warm and wet.
• Peking Specifics: Peking experiences seven dry months from October to April, with only 2.1 inches of rain, which is 1/12th of the annual 25-inch rainfall. The highest rainfall occurs in July.
• Mountain Interiors: Intense heating in summer, low pressure, and moisture winds from the Pacific Ocean and Sea of Japan resulted in the Southeast Monsoon, also known as a cool temperate monsoon climate.
• Long Cold Winters: The region experiences long cold winters with a significant annual temperature range of 55°F.
• Winter Conditions: Dry, cold wind from Asia in winter carries fine yellow dust as loess in Shansi, Shensi & Hwang Ho. Winter rain falls as snow in Northern China, Korea, and Hokkaido in Japan.
• Climate Modification: The climate is modified by insularity, involving the meeting of warm and cold currents. The Southeast Monsoon occurs in summer, while the Northwest Monsoon occurs in winter, bringing dry and cold winds.
• Two Rain Maxima: There are two rainfall maxima – one in June (Plum Rain) and the other in September (Typhoon Rain).

• Cool Temperate Forest: Characterized by a cool temperate climate with heavy rainfall and warm summers. Damp air from fog contributes to the overall moisture content.
• Coniferous Trees North of 50° Latitude: North of the 50° latitude, the natural vegetation consists primarily of coniferous trees. This area represents a continuation of the taiga, the biome dominated by coniferous forests found in high northern latitudes. Notably, the forest is not highly adaptable to extremely cold conditions.
• Lumbering as the Main Activity: Lumbering, the industry of harvesting timber, is a significant economic activity in this region. Timber is a major export item, reflecting the abundance of forest resources.
• Coniferous Tree Species: Common coniferous tree species in the region include fir, spruce, and larch. These trees are well-suited for the cool temperate climate and contribute to the forest ecosystem.
• Deciduous Trees South of 50° Latitude: South of the 50° latitude, the natural vegetation shifts to deciduous trees. Tree species such as oak, beech, maple, and birch are prevalent in this area.
• Open Forests with Long Growing Season: Deciduous forests in this region experience a longer growing season of approximately 6 months. Moisture availability supports rapid growth, fostering the development of ferns and other understorey vegetation.
• Pure Stands and Commercial Exploitation: Trees in these regions often occur in pure stands, meaning that specific tree species dominate certain areas. This makes commercial exploitation of forests easier due to the concentration of valuable timber resources.
• Canada's Greater Reserve of Coniferous Softwoods: Canada, part of the North American region in the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, is noted for having a greater reserve of coniferous softwoods. Softwood species like fir, spruce, and pine are abundant and contribute significantly to the lumber industry.

• Lumbering – Timber, Paper, and Pulp Industries: Lumbering is a significant economic activity in the region. Timber, derived from the abundant forests, is a major resource for the lumber industry. The processing of timber is not limited to wood products but extends to paper and pulp industries, contributing to the production of paper and related products.
• Agriculture – Potatoes on Podzolized Soil, Oats, and Barley: Agriculture in the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin involves the cultivation of specific crops. Potatoes are grown on podzolized soil, which is characteristic of certain areas with acidic and leached soils. Other important crops include oats and barley, which thrive in the cool temperate climate.
• Asiatic Region – Soybeans, Groundnut, Sesame, Rapeseed, Tung Oil, and Mulberry: In the Asiatic region (including North China, Manchuria, and Korea), agriculture is diversified with the cultivation of various crops. Soybeans are a significant crop in this region, providing a valuable source of protein and oil. Other crops include groundnut (peanuts), sesame, rapeseed (canola), tung oil, and mulberry (likely for silk production).
• North American Region – Dairy Farming, Hay Cultivation, Fruit Growing: Dairy farming is a prominent agricultural activity in the North American region of the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin. Hay cultivation is important for providing fodder for livestock, including dairy cattle. Fruit growing is another notable aspect of agriculture, taking advantage of the favourable climate conditions for producing various fruits.

Newfoundland

• Location: Newfoundland boasts the world's largest fishing ground on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
• Conditions: Abundant plankton in shallow waters and a gentle continental slope contribute to the richness of marine life.
• Participating Countries: Fleets from Canada, USA, Norway, France, Britain, Denmark, Russia, and Japan engage in fishing activities in this region.
• Economic Importance: Fishing is a major employment source and a significant contributor to exports in Newfoundland.
• Fish Species: Mainly focused on cod, which is consumed fresh or processed (dried, salted, smoked, or packed in ice). Other fishes include haddock, halibut, hake, herring, plaice, and mackerel.
• Fishing Techniques: Various methods include trawlers, conical nets, drifters, and rectangular nets equipped with radar and radio devices for navigation through dense fog. Offshore fishermen use traps, lines, and nets for crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.
• Freshwater Fishing: Inland water bodies support the fishing of freshwater fishes like salmon, trout, eel, and sturgeon.
• Major Fishing Ports: St. John's in Newfoundland is the headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing industry, known for sealing and whaling. Processing plants are located in Halifax and Yarmouth in Nova Scotia and New England.
• Concerns: Overfishing is a growing problem, and the industry faces challenges related to sustainability.

Japan

• NW Pacific Fishing Area: Japan relies heavily on the Northwest Pacific fishing area for its seafood supply.
• Cultural Importance: Fish is a major diet and a chief source of protein in Japan due to cultural practices and scarcity of meat.
• Fish Waste Utilization: Fish waste, fish meal, and seaweed are used as fertilizers in farms.
• Seaweed Cultivation: Japan is known for cultivating seaweed, and this industry is an integral part of its fishing sector.
• Pearl Culture: South Japan is recognized for pearl culture, with shellfish called pearl oysters producing highly prized pearls. The lining is used to manufacture pearl buttons.
• Whaling Fleet: Japan has a history of whaling and maintains a whaling fleet, returning to the coast for refuelling or replenishment of fresh provisions.
• Major Fishing Nation: Japan is a major fishing nation, contributing to approximately 1/6th of the total global fish catch.
• Land Utilization: With 80% of the land being non-agricultural, Japan heavily relies on the sea for its protein supply.

Hokkaido, Japan:

• Climate Influence: The climate in Hokkaido is too cold for extensive agriculture, making fishing a primary economic activity.
• Major Fishing Ports: Hakote and Kushiro are large fishing ports with refrigeration facilities.
• Geographical Challenges: Lack of lowlands and pastures necessitates dependence on fishing.
• Protein Source: Fishing is a main source of protein for the region, meeting both local demand and export purposes.
• Fishing Techniques: Fishing activities range from small boats, nets, traps, and lines to highly mechanized commercial deep-sea demersal fishing using trawlers and refrigeration plants.
• Research Focus: The region is a major centre for marine and fishing research, reflecting the importance of the fishing industry.