INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

Many of the environmental problems facing humankind are global problems which need to be addressed on an international front, rather than localized issues which can be addressed by individual countries acting alone. For this reason, international environmental law is becoming increasingly important as an instrument in attempting to counter global environmental problems like ozone depletion, climate change, species extinction & desertification.

Major Environment International Conventions

Nature Conservation

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• United Nations Conference on Environment & Development (UNCED)
• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
• The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna & Flora (CITES)
• Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)
• Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)
• United Nations Forum on Forests (UNEF)
• International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)
• International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources (IUCN)
• Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• International Whaling Commission (IWC)
• Stockholm Convention
• Rotterdam Convention
• Basel Convention
• Vienna Convention & Montreal Protocol
• Kyoto Protocol
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

1. United Nations Conference on Environment & Development (UNCED)

• UNCED is also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
• Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production, particularly the production of toxic components such as lead in gasoline or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals.
• Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global climate change.

The Earth Summit resulted in the following Documents:

• Rio Declaration on Environment & Development
• Forest Principles
• Agenda 21

Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development & was an outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment & Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21^st century.

Rio +5: In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held a special session to appraise 5 years of progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 (Rio+5). The Assembly recognized progress as uneven & unidentified key trends including increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income & a continued deterioration of the global environment.

Johannesburg Summit: The Johannesburg Plan of implementation, agreed upon at the World Summit on Sustainable Development affirmed the UN's commitment to full implementation of Agenda 21, alongside the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals & other international agreements.

Rio +20: Rio +20 is the short name for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 2012-twenty years after the landmark 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. The official discussions focused on two main themes- 1) how to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development & lift people out of poverty. 2) how to improve international coordination for sustainable development.

2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 

It is a legally binding Convention recognized for the 1^st time, that the conservation of biological diversity is a common concern of humankind & is an integral part of the development process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species & genetic resources.

Objectives: The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components & the fair sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources & by transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources & to technologies & by appropriate funding.

Goals: Sharing benefits arising from the commercial & other utilization of genetic resources in a fair & equitable way. The conservation of biodiversity and Sustainable use of components of biodiversity.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety-Convention on Biological Diversity:

Biosafety refers to the need to protect human health & the environment from the possible adverse effects of the products of modern biotechnology.

The twin aspects of modern biotechnology are:

• Access to & transfer of technologies
• Appropriate procedures to enhance the safety of biotechnology

Objectives:

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an additional agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• The Protocol requires Parties to ensure that LMOs being shipped from one country to another are handled, packaged & transported safely.
• The Protocol establishes procedures for regulating the import & export of LMOs from one country to another.
• The shipments must be accompanied by documentation that identifies the LMOs, specifies any requirements for the safe handling, storage, transport & use, and provides contact details for further information.

Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol:

• The Cartagena Protocol is reinforced by the Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability & Redress.
• The competent authority in a Party to the Supplementary Protocol must require the person in control of the LMO (Operator) to take the response measures or it may implement such measures itself & recover any costs incurred from the operator.
• The Supplementary Protocol specifies response measures to be taken in the event of damage to biodiversity resulting from LMOs.

humankind Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources & the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their Utilization of the Convention on Biological Diversity is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Objective: The objective is the fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation & sustainable use of biodiversity.

Obligations: The Nagoya Protocol sets out core obligations for its contracting Parties to take measures regarding access to genetic resources, benefit-sharing & compliance.

• Create legal certainty, clarity & transparency
• Provide fair & non-arbitrary rules & procedures
• Establish clear rules & procedures for prior informed consent & mutually agreed terms.
• Provide for issuance of a permit or equivalent when access is granted.
• Create conditions to promote & encourage research contributing to biodiversity conservation & sustainable use.
• Consider the importance of genetic resources for food & agriculture for food security.
• Pay due regard to cases of present & imminent emergencies that threaten human, animal or plant health.
• Utilization includes research & development on the genetic or biochemical composition of genetic resources as well as subsequent applications & commercialization.
• Cooperate in cases of alleged violation of another contracting party’s requirements.

Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020:

• In the 10^th meeting of the conference of the parties held in 2010, in Nagoya, Japan, adopted a revised & updated strategic plan for biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for the 2011-2020 period.
• Additionally, the meeting decided that the 5^th national report, due by the end of March 2014, should focus on the implementation of the 2011-2020 strategic plan & progress achieved towards the Aichi biodiversity targets.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets:

Strategic Goal A:

• By 2020, people will be aware of the value of biodiversity & the steps they can take to conserve & use it sustainably.
• By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national & local development & poverty reduction strategies & planning processes are being incorporated into national accounting as appropriate & reporting systems.
• By 2020, governments, businesses & stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production & consumption and have kept the impacts of the use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits.

Strategic Goal B:

Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity & promote sustainable use.

• By 2020, all fish & invertebrate stocks & aquatic plants will be managed & harvested sustainably, and legally & applying ecosystem-based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans & measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species & vulnerable ecosystems & the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species & ecosystems are within safe ecological limits.
• By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, will be at least halved & where feasible brought close to zero & degradation & fragmentation will be significantly reduced.
• By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function & biodiversity.
• By 2020, areas under agriculture, aquaculture & forestry will be managed sustainably, ensuring the conservation of biodiversity.

Strategic Goal C:

• By 2020, the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented & their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, was improved & sustained.
• By 2020, 17% of terrestrial & inland water & 10% of coastal & marine areas of particular importance for biodiversity & ecosystem services are conserved through effectively & equitably managed.

Strategic Goal D:

• Enhance the benefits of all forms of biodiversity & ecosystem services.
• By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water & contribute to health, livelihoods & well-being are restored & safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous & local communities.
• By 2020, ecosystem resilience & the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks was enhanced through conservation & restoration, including restoration of at least 15% of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation & adaptation to combating desertification.

COP 11 Hyderabad:

• One of the most important outcomes of the COP is the commitment of the Parties to double the international financial flows for Biodiversity by 2015.
• This will translate into additional financial flows to the developing countries to the tune of about US$ 30 billion equivalent to about Rs. 1,50,000 crore over the next 8 years.
• The funds will be used to enhance technical & human capabilities at the national & state-level mechanisms to attain the CBD (Convention on Bio-Diversity) objectives.
• India committed US$ 50 million towards strengthening the institutional mechanism for biodiversity conservation in the country during its presidency of the CBD called the Hyderabad Pledge.
• India instituted together with UNDP Biodiversity Governance Awards. The first such awards were given during the COP11. It is now proposed to institute the Rajiv Gandhi International Award for Harnessing Biodiversity for Livelihood.

3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

• The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action & international cooperation for the conservation & wise use of wetlands & their resources.
• Ramsar is not affiliated with the United Nations systems of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, but it works very closely with the other MEAs & is a full partner in the biodiversity-related cluster of treaties & agreements.
• Mission: The conservation & wise use of all wetlands through local, regional & national actions & international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world.

Commitment:

• Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands through national land-use planning, appropriate policies & legislation, management actions & public education.
• Cooperate internationally concerning transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems & development projects that may affect wetlands.
• Designate suitable wetlands for the list of wetlands of international importance & ensure their effective management.

Ramsar List:

• At the time of joining the Convention, each Contracting Party designates at least one site for inclusion in the list of wetlands of International Importance.
• The addition of a site to the Ramsar List confers on it the prestige of international recognition & expresses the government’s commitment to take all steps necessary to ensure the maintenance of the ecological character of the site.

Transboundary Ramsar Sites:

• An ecologically coherent wetland extends across national borders & the Ramsar site authorities on all sides of the border have formally agreed to collaborate in its management & have notified the secretariat of this intent.
• This is a cooperative management arrangement & not a distinct legal status for the Ramsar sites involved.

Montreux Record:

• Adopted by the conference of the Contracting Parties in Brisbane, 1996, accompanying the Guidelines for Operation of the Montreux Record.
• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites in the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred/occurred/likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.
• Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan & Loktak Lake, Manipur were included in the Montreux Record in 1990 & 1993 respectively.
• Chilika Lake, Orissa included in Montreux Record in 1993 was removed in 2002. It is placed on the Montreux Record due to problems caused by siltation & sedimentation which was choking the mouth of the lake.

IOPs:

5 global non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been associated with the treaty since its beginnings & were confirmed in the formal status of International Organization Partners (IOPs) of the Convention.

• Birdlife International (formerly ICBP)
• IWMI- the International Water Management Institute
• IUCN-International Union for the Conservation of Nature
• Wetlands International
• World Wide Fund for Nature

India & Wetland Conservation:

• India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in 1981 & has been implementing conservation programmes for wetlands, mangroves & coral reefs.
• India has 26 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance.
• There is close coordination between implementing units of Ramsar with the CBD at the national level. India took a lead role in the formulation of Ramsar guidelines on the integration of wetlands into river basin management.

4. CITES

• In the early 1960s, international discussion began focusing on the rate at which the world’s wild animals & plants were being threatened by
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora (CITES) is an international agreement between governments that entered into force in 1975 & became the only treaty to ensure that international trade in plants & animals does not threaten their survival in the wild.
• 176 countries are Parties to CITES currently.
• CITES is administered through the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). A Secretariat, located in Geneva, Switzerland oversees the implementation of the treaty & assists with communications between countries.

Appendix-1:

Includes species threatened with extinction & provides the greatest level of protection, including restrictions on commercial trade. Examples: Gorillas, sea turtles, lady slipper orchids & giant pandas.

Appendix-2:

Includes species that although currently not threatened with extinction, may become so without trade controls. It also includes species that resemble other listed species & need to be regulated to effectively control the trade in those other listed species.

Appendix-3:

• Includes species for which a range country has asked other Parties to help in controlling international trade. Examples: map turtles, walruses, and Cape stag beetles.
• Until CoP13, these meetings were held every 2 years, since then CoPs have been held every 3 years.
• CoP16 is scheduled to occur in March 2013, in Bangkok, Thailand.

5. TRAFFIC-The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network

• TRAFFIC is a joint conservation programme of WWF & IUCN.
• TRAFFIC is an international network, consisting of TRAFFIC International, based in Cambridge, UK with offices in 5 continents.
• It was established in 1976 by the Species Survival Commission of IUCN, principally as a response to the entry into force during the previous year of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora (CITES).
• This non-governmental organization undertakes its activities in close collaboration with governments & the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora Secretariat.

Goal: To ensure that trade in wild plants & animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.

6. Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS):

• The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of wild animals aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic & avian migratory species throughout their range.
• It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, concerned with the conservation of wildlife & habitats on a global scale.
• The only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats & migration routes, CMS complements & co-operates with several other international organizations, NGOs & partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector.

Appendix:

• Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed in Appendix 1 of the convention.
• Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international cooperation are listed in Appendix 2 of the convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional Agreements.

CMS (Conservation of Migratory Species) as framework Convention:

• The Agreements may range from legally binding treaties to less formal instruments like Memoranda of Understanding & can be adapted to the requirements of particular regions.
• The development of models tailored according to the conservation needs throughout the migratory range is a unique capacity of CMS.

Raptor MOU:

• The Indian Government has signed ‘Raptor MOU’, on Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa & Eurasia, with the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• The CMS aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range.
• India had become a party to the CMS since November 1983. The Raptor MOU is an agreement under article IV paragraph 4 of the CMS & is not legally binding.
• The Raptor MOU extends its coverage to 76 species of birds of prey, out of which 46 species, including vultures, falcons, eagles, owls, hawks, kites, harriers etc, also occur in India.
• India has become the 56^th signatory state to sign the Raptor MOU which was concluded in October 2008 & came into effect in November 2008.

7. Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT):

• The Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) aims to focus public & political attention & resources on ending the illegal trade in wildlife & wildlife products.
• Initiated in 2005, CAWT is a unique voluntary public-private coalition of like-minded governments & organizations sharing a common purpose.
• CAWT improves Wildlife Law Enforcement by expanding enforcement training & information sharing & strengthening regional cooperative networks.
• Catalyze high-level political will to fight wildlife trafficking by broadening support at the highest political levels for actions to combat the illegal wildlife trade.
• The CAWT organisation is not directly involved in any enforcement activities.

8. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO):

• ITTO is an intergovernmental organization, under the UN (1986) promoting the conservation & sustainable management, use & trade of tropical forest resources.
• Its members represent about 80% of the world’s tropical forests & 90% of the global tropical timber trade.
• It manages its program of projects & other activities, enabling it to quickly test & operationalize its policy work.
• ITTO develops internationally agreed policy documents to promote sustainable forest management & forest conservation & assists tropical member countries to adapt such policies to local circumstances & to implement them in the field through projects.

9. United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF):

• The Economic & Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC), established the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) in October 2000.
• It is a subsidiary body with the main objective to promote the management, conservation & sustainable development of all types of forests & to strengthen long-term political commitment to this end.
• Based on the Rio Declaration, the Forest Principles, Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 & the outcome of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF)/Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) Processes & other key milestones of International forest policy.
• The Forum has universal membership & is composed of all Member States of the United Nations & specialized agencies.

Principal Functions:

• To facilitate the implementation of forest-related agreements & foster a common understanding of sustainable forest management.
• To enhance cooperation as well as policy & programme coordination on forest-related issues.
• To foster international cooperation.
• To provide for continued policy development & dialogue among governments, and international organizations, including major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 as well as to address forest issues & emerging areas of concern in a holistic, comprehensive & integrated manner.
• To monitor, assess & report on progress of the above functions & objectives.
• Encourage & assist countries, including those with low forest cover, to develop & implement forest conservation & rehabilitation strategies, increase the area of forests under sustainable management & reduce forest degradation & the loss of forest cover to maintain their forest resources to enhance the benefits of forests to meet present & future needs.
• Strengthen interaction between the United Nations Forum on Forests & relevant regional & sub-regional forest-related mechanisms, institutions, instruments, organizations & processes, with the participation of major groups.

10. IPF/IFF Process (1995-2000):

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) & the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) represent 5 years of international forest policy dialogue.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF), established by the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) for 2 years (1995-97) to provide a forum for forest policy deliberations.
• Subsequently in 1997, ECOSOC established the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF), for 3 years (1997-2000).

Global Objectives on Forests:

• Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest management (SFM), including protection, restoration, afforestation & reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation.
• Increase significantly the area of sustainably managed forests, including protected forests & increase the proportion of forest products derived from sustainably managed forests.
• Enhance forest-based economic, social & environmental benefits, including by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people.
• Reverse the decline in official development assistance for sustainable forest management & mobilize significantly increased new & additional financial resources from all sources for the implementation of SFM.

11. Non-legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests (NLBI):

• The 7^th Session of the UNFF adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests in April 2007.
• It is the 1^st time member States have agreed to an international instrument for sustainable forest management.
• The instrument is expected to have a major impact on international cooperation & national action to reduce deforestation, prevent forest degradation, promote sustainable livelihoods & reduce poverty for all forest-dependent people.

12. IUCN

IUCN was founded in October 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN) following an international conference in France.

The organization changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources in 1956 with the acronym IUCN with its headquarters in Switzerland.

Missions:

• To influence, encourage & assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity & diversity of nature & to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable & ecologically sustainable.
• IUCN supports scientific research, manages field projects globally & brings governments, non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies & local communities together to develop & implement policy.
• IUCN members include both states & non-governmental organizations.
• A neutral forum for governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses & local communities to find practical solutions to conservation & development challenges.

Priorities of IUCN:

• Climate Change
• Biodiversity
• Sustainable energy
• Green Economy
• Human well-being

13. Global Tiger Forum (GTF)

• The GTF is an inter-governmental & international body established with members from willing countries to embark on a worldwide campaign, promotion, and common approach of appropriate programmes to control to save the remaining 5 sub-species of tigers in the wild distributed over 14 tiger range countries of the world.
• It was formed in 1994 with its secretariat in New Delhi, GTF is the only inter-governmental & international body campaigning to save the tigers worldwide.
• The General Assembly of GTF shall meet once in three years.

Goal:

To highlight the rationale for tiger preservation & provide leadership & common approach throughout the world to safeguard the survival of the tiger, its prey & its habitat.

Objectives:

• To promote eco-development programmes with the participation of the communities living in & around protected areas.
• To promote a worldwide campaign to save the tiger, its prey & its habitat.
• To increase the protected area network of habitats of the tiger & facilitate their inner passages in the range countries.
• To promote a legal framework in the countries involved in biodiversity conservation.
• To urge countries to enter into relevant conventions for the conservation of tigers & elimination of illegal trade.
• To involve inter-governmental organisations in the protection of the tiger.
• To set up a participative fund of an appropriate size to engender awareness in all places where people consume tiger derivatives to eliminate such consumption of tiger products & identify substitutes in the interests of conservation.

Global Tiger Initiative:

An alliance of governments, international agencies, civil society & the private sector united to save wild tigers from extinction.

14. The Stockholm Convention on POP:

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) was adopted at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries in May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden & entered into force in May 2004.

POPs:

• Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are organic chemical substances which are carbon-based.
• They possess a particular combination of physical & chemical properties such that, once released into the environment, they: remain intact for exceptionally long periods;
• become widely distributed throughout the environment as a result of natural processes involving soil, water & most notably air;
• Accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans & are found at higher concentrations at higher levels in the food chain.

In addition, POPs concentrate on living organisms through another process called bioaccumulation.

Though not soluble in water, POPs are readily absorbed in fatty tissue, concentrations can become magnified by up to 70,000 times the background levels.

Initial POPs:

Initially, twelve POPs were recognized as causing adverse effects on humans & the ecosystem & these can be placed in 3 categories.

1. Industrial Chemicals: Hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
2. Pesticides: Chlordane, Aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, toxaphene, mirex.
3. By-products: hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, PCBs.

New POPs:

At the 4^th meeting held in 2009, the COP adopted amendments to Annexes A, B & C to the Stockholm Convention to list 9 new Persistent Organic Pollutants.

1. Industrial Chemicals: hexa bromobiphenyl, hexa bromodiphenyl ether, heptabromodiphenyl ether, penta chlorobenzene, perfluoro octane sulfonic acid & its salts, perfluoro octane sulfonyl fluoride, tetra bromodiphenyl ether & penta bromodiphenyl ether.
2. Pesticides: chlordecone, lindane, pentachlorobenzene, alpha hexachloro-cyclo hexane, penta chlorobenzene.
3. By-products: beta hexa chlorocyclohexane, penta chlorobenzene, alpha hexa chlorocyclohexane.

Endosulfan:

At its 5^th meeting held in 2011, the COP adopted an amendment to Annex A to the Stockholm Convention to list technical Endosulfan & its related isomers with a specific exemption.

15. Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes & their Disposal was adopted in March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Switzerland, in response to public outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa & other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.

Objective:

To protect human health & the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as “hazardous wastes” based on their origin and composition and their characteristics as well as two types of wastes defined as “other wastes”-household waste & incinerator ash.

Principal Aims:

• The restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to be by the principles of environmentally sound management.
• The reduction of hazardous waste generation & the promotion of environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal.
• A regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.

16. Rotterdam Convention

• It was adopted in 1998 by a Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Rotterdam, the Netherlands & entered into force in February 2004.
• The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
• It was built on the voluntary PIC procedure, initiated by UNEP & FAO in 1989 & ceased in February 2006.
• The Convention covers pesticides & industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by Parties & which were notified by Parties for inclusion in the PIC procedure.

Objectives:

• To promote shared responsibility & cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals to protect human health & the environment from potential harm.
• To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those hazardous chemicals, by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a national decision-making process on their import & export by disseminating the decisions to Parties.

17. UNCCD

• UNCCD was established in 1994. It is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment & development to sustainable land management.
• The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is one of the Rio Conventions that focuses on Desertification, Land Degradation and drought (DLDD).
• The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification & land degradation.
• Desertification as defined in the UNCCD refers to land degradation in the drylands like arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid regions, resulting from various factors & does not connote the spread or expansion of deserts.
• UNCCD with 194 parties is a unique instrument that recognizes land degradation as an important factor affecting some of the most vulnerable people & ecosystems in the world.
• The convention aims at adaptation & can, on implementation, significantly contribute to achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as well as sustainable development & poverty reduction using arresting & reversing land degradation.

18. International Whaling Commission

• The International Whaling Commission is the global intergovernmental body charged with the conservation of whales & the management of Whaling with headquarters in Cambridge, United Kingdom.
• It was set up under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling which was signed in Washington in 1946.

Preamble:

To provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks & make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry.

To keep under review & revise as necessary the measures laid down in the Schedule to the Convention which govern the conduct of whaling throughout the world.

The compilation of catch reports & other statistical, biological records is required.

The commission introduced zero catch limits in 1986 for commercial whaling. This provision is still in place today, although the Commission continues to set catch limits for aboriginal subsistence whaling.

19. Vienna Convention

• Vienna convention adopted in 1985 & entered into force in 1988.
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer however it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs.
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone layer & its Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer are dedicated to the protection of the earth’s ozone layer. With 197 parties, they are the most widely ratified treaties in United Nations history.

Montreal Protocol:

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the production & consumption of ozone-depleting substances to reduce their abundance in the atmosphere & protect the earth’s fragile ozone layer.
• The treaty was opened for signature in September 1987 & entered into force in January 1989, followed by 1^st meeting in May 1989.
• Since then it has undergone 7 revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing).

Protection of Ozone Layer & India:

• India became a Party to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer in June 1991 & the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer in September 1992.
• India produces CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-13, Halon-1211, HCFC-22, Halon-1301, Carbontetrachloride (CTC), methyl chloroform & methyl bromide.
• These ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) are used in refrigeration & air conditioning, firefighting, electronics, foams, and aerosol fumigation applications.
• A detailed India Country Programme for the phase-out of ODS was prepared in 1993 to ensure the phase-out of ODS according to the national industrial development strategy, without undue burden to the consumers & the industry for accessing the Protocol’s Financial Mechanism by the requirements stipulated in the Montreal Protocol.
• To meet the objectives of the protocol, the Indian Government has granted full exemption from payment of Customs and Central Excise Duties on the import of goods designed exclusively for non-ODS technology.
• The Ministry of Environment & Forests established an Ozone cell & a steering committee on the Montreal Protocol to facilitate the implementation of the India Country Programme for phasing out ODS production by 2010.
• India has been facilitating the implementation of the Montreal Protocol in South & South East Asia & the Pacific regions.

20. Kigali Agreement

• 28^th meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer held in Kigali, Rwanda amended the 1987 Montreal Protocol to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC).
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were discontinued under the Montreal Protocol when scientists realized they were destroying the ozone layer.
• HFCs were introduced in the 1990s as an alternative to replace chemicals that had been found to erode the ozone layer but turned out to be catastrophic for global warming.
• The elimination of HFCs could reduce global warming by 0.5⁰ by 2100, according to a 2015 study by the Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development.
• Swapping HFCs for alternatives such as ammonia, water or gases called hydrofluorocarbons could prove costly for developing countries with high summer temperatures like India.
• The Kigali Agreement for HFCs reduction will be binding on countries from 2019.
• Under the legally binding Kigali Amendment, 197 countries have agreed to a timeline to reduce the use of HFCs by roughly 85% of their baselines by 2045.
• Developed countries must reduce their use of HFCs by 10% by 2019 from 2011-13 levels & then by 85% by 2036.
• A 2^nd group of developing countries, including China & African nations are committed to launching the transition in 2024.
• A third group of developing countries, which include India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq & Arab Gulf states must begin the process in 2028 & reduce emissions by 10% by 2024-26 levels & then by 85% by 2047.

21. Minimata Convention

• The Minimata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health & the environment from anthropogenic emissions & releases of mercury & mercury compounds.
• It was adopted in 2013 in Japan.
• It controls the transboundary movement of mercury. It does not include natural emissions of mercury.
• Mercury is considered to be one of the most toxic metals known.
• Once released into the environment, mercury bio-accumulates & bio-magnifies in the food chain & easily enters the human body & impacts the nervous system.

The Minimata Convention requires that Party Nations:

• Reduce & where feasible eliminate the use & release of mercury from artisanal & small-scale gold mining.
• Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals production operations, waste incineration & cement production.
• Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products like batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics, pesticides & measuring devices & create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
• Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes like chlor-alkali production, vinyl-chloride monomer production & acetaldehyde production.
• In addition, the Convention includes provisions for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness & research & monitoring.
• It requires Parties to report on measures taken to implement certain provisions.
• The Convention will be periodically evaluated to assess its effectiveness in meeting its objectives of protecting human health & the environment from mercury pollution.
• The Minimata Convention entered into force in August 2017. The 1^st COP to the Minimata Convention on Mercury (CoP1) took place in September 2017 at the International Conference Centre in Geneva.
• The COP2 will take place in November 2018 in Geneva, Switzerland.
• The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal for ratification of the Minimata Convention on Mercury along with Flexibility for continued use of mercury-based products & processes involving mercury compound up to 2025 & depositing the instrument of ratification enabling India to become a Party of the Convention.