INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
1. Context
- The forthcoming monsoon season in India faces the likelihood of being influenced by the EI Nino phenomenon.
- However, there are hopes that a positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) event could counterbalance the effects of El Nino.
- The IOD, a weaker ocean-atmosphere interaction similar to El Nino, occurs in the Indian Ocean and has the potential to mitigate the impacts of El Nino to some extent.
2. Current Status
- While El Nino has already established itself in the Pacific Ocean this year, the IOD is currently in a neutral phase.
- The latest update from Australia's Bureau of Meteorology reveals that all international climate models suggest a possible development of a positive IOD event in the coming months.
- Additionally, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) bulletin states an 80 per cent probability of a positive IOD occurring during the June-August 2023 season.
3. Understanding El Nino and IOD
- El Nino, known as the Indian Nino, refers to a phenomenon where the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean becomes warmer due to weakened wind systems.
- Conversely, during La Nina, the opposite occurs.
- These conditions, collectively referred to as El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), impact weather patterns globally and suppress monsoon rainfall over India.
- Similarly, the IOD, sometimes called the Indian Nino, occurs in the Indian Ocean between the Indonesian and Malaysian coastline in the east and the African coastline near Somalia in the west.
- It is characterized by one side of the equatorial ocean becoming warmer than the other.
- A positive IOD occurs when the western side near the Somalia coast becomes warmer, while a negative IOD indicates cooler temperatures in the Western Indian Ocean.
4. Relationship between ENSO and IOD
- IOD events often coincide with El Nino with a positive IOD typically developing during El Nino periods.
- Conversely, a negative IOD is sometimes associated with La Nina. While studies suggest that ENSO can trigger IOD events, there is evidence that IOD events can occur independently, driven by local circulations or subsurface processes within the equatorial Indian Ocean.
- Interestingly, strong IOD and ENSO events can influence each other's circulation patterns.
5. Impacts of IOD
- A positive IOD event brings increased rainfall along the African coastline and the Indian subcontinent while suppressing rainfall over Indonesia, Southeast Asia and Australia.
- Conversely, during a negative IOD event, the impacts are reversed.
- However, it is important to note that the impacts of IOD events are generally weaker compared to ENSO events.
Image source: Climate.gov6. Hope for positive IOD
- Given the expected development of a strong El Nino in the Pacific Ocean this year, the possibility of a positive IOD event provides hope for balancing its effects.
- The case of the 2019 late monsoon season serves as an example, where a strong IOD Compensated for the initial deficit rainfall attributed to a developing El Nino.
7. The Way Forward
- As the monsoon season approaches, the possibility of a positive IOD event offers optimism for mitigating the impact of El Nino on rainfall patterns.
- Monitoring the development of the IOD and considering updated forecasts will be crucial in understanding its potential effects.
- While the IOD's impacts are relatively weaker than ENSO, there remains a glimmer of hope for a positive outcome this year.
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For Prelims: El Nino, La Nino, ENSO, India Meteorological Department, Indian Ocean Dipole, Australia's Bureau of Meteorology,
For Mains:
1. What is the Indian Ocean Dipole? Explain how it differs from the El Nino phenomenon and Discuss its impact on the Indian Monsoon season. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. A new type of El Nino called El Nino Modoki appeared in the news. In this context, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central Pacific Ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. Normal El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean but El Nino Modoki results in a greater number of hurricanes with greater frequency.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. "EL Nino" refers to a temperature anomaly in the ________ ocean. (NTPC CBT 2 2017)
A. Indian B. Pacific C. Southern D. Atlantic
Answer: B
3. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino? (UPSC 2011)
1. La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in the equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Nino is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has an adverse effect on the south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on the monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
4. Consider the following statements: (MPSC 2017)
a. La Nina is a little girl.
b. During the time of La Nina cold water in the ocean rises to the surface.
c. La Nina strengthens the Indian monsoon.
d. During the time of El Nino, trade winds weaken, and warm water moves east in the ocean. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. Only a and b
B. a, b and c Only
C. b and c
D. All of the above
Answer: D
5. Arrange the following India Meteorological Headquarters in Chronological order of their establishment and select your correct answer from the codes given below: (UPPSC Civil Service 2018)
A. New Delhi
B. Kolkata
C. Shimla
D. Pune
A. C D A B B. B A D C C. D B C A D. B C D A
Answer: D
6. With reference to 'Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)' sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)
1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an EI Nino's impact on the monsoon. '
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
PAKISTAN-OCCUPIED KASHMIR (POK)
1. Context
External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar recently expressed India's expectation of having physical jurisdiction over Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK) in the future. Defence Minister Rajnath Singh had earlier stated that any talks with Pakistan would focus on PoK rather than Jammu and Kashmir. Home Minister Amit Shah clarified that when referring to the State of Jammu and Kashmir, it includes both PoK and Aksai Chin.
2. Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK)
- Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK) covers an area of 13,297 sq km and came under Pakistani control after the ceasefire line took effect on January 1, 1949.
- The region has a population of over 4 million according to a 2017 census and is divided into 10 districts.
- The capital of PoK is Muzaffarabad, located in the valley of the Jhelum River.
- In 1963, Pakistan ceded around 5,000 sq km of Jammu and Kashmir's land to China in the Shaksgam area, beyond the Karakoram range.
Image Source: Print
3. Gilgit Baltistan
- Gilgit Baltistan (GB) is a picturesque, hilly region located to the north of PoK and east of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
- The British sold it, along with the rest of Jammu and Kashmir, to the Dogra ruler of Jammu, Gulab Singh, in 1846.
- The British retained control over Gilgit Baltistan through a lease extracted from the Maharaja, which was last renewed in 1935.
- In 1947, a British army officer handed over GB for accession to Pakistan, imprisoning Maharaja Hari Singh's governor in the region.
- Gilgit Baltistan covers an area of 72,871 sq km, which is five-and-a-half times the size of PoK.
- The region has a sparse population of just under 2 million people.
- Gilgit Baltistan is divided into three administrative divisions and 10 districts: Gilgit, Hunza, Ghizer, Nagar, Ghanche, Shigar, Kharmang, Skardu, Diamer, and Astore.
4. The strategic importance of Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK)
- Geopolitical Significance: PoK serves as a crucial link between Pakistan and China. It shares a border with both countries and is a part of the larger Kashmir region, which is a disputed territory between India and Pakistan. Its location makes it strategically important for regional politics and security.
- Access to Central Asia: PoK provides Pakistan with a direct land route to Central Asia through the Karakoram Highway. This highway is a major trade and transportation route, enabling connectivity and access to markets in the region.
- Water Resources: PoK is home to the headwaters of several rivers, including the Jhelum and Chenab, which are tributaries of the Indus River. The control of these water resources gives Pakistan an advantage in terms of water supply and hydropower generation.
- Military Advantage: PoK's mountainous terrain offers natural defenses and strategic positions, making it valuable for military purposes. It provides a buffer zone between India and Pakistan and allows for military operations and surveillance along the Line of Control (LoC).
- Nuclear Ambitions: Both India and Pakistan possess nuclear capabilities, and PoK's proximity to the Indian-administered Kashmir region adds to its significance in terms of nuclear deterrence and military strategies.
5. Administrative status in Gilgit Baltistan
- PoK (Pakistan Occupied Kashmir) and Gilgit Baltistan are ruled directly from Islamabad but are not officially listed as territories of Pakistan.
- Pakistan has four provinces: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (including FATA), Balochistan, and Sindh.
- PoK and Gilgit Baltistan are considered "autonomous territories" in Pakistan to maintain the narrative that the entire Jammu and Kashmir region is disputed.
- Incorporating these areas into Pakistan's map could harm its international position and recognition.
- According to India's resolution passed by Parliament in 1994, PoK and Gilgit Baltistan are both part of the State of Jammu and Kashmir, which is integral to India by virtue of its accession in 1947.
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For Prelims: Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK), Gilgit Baltistan, Jhelum River, Karakoram range.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the historical background and current status of Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK) in the context of the India-Pakistan conflict over Jammu and Kashmir. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. What is the importance of developing the Chabahar Port by India? (UPSC 2017)
A. India's trade with African countries will enormously increase.
B. India's relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.
C. India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
D. Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipe between Iraq and India.
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
INDIA-US DIGITAL TRADE
1. Context
During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s U.S. state visit, cooperation on technology emerged as a prominent talking point and yielded some of the most substantive outcomes.
2. Current Status of India-US technology trade
- In FY2023, the United States became India's largest overall trading partner with a bilateral trade increase of 7.65% to $128.55 billion in 2022-23.
- Digital or technology services did not play a prominent role in bilateral trade between the two countries.
- The US ran a trade deficit of $27 billion in digital services with India in 2020.
- The US and India have been strengthening their tech partnership through initiatives like the Initiatives on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) announced by President Joe Biden and Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
- The iCET led to the establishment of a strategic Trade Dialogue between India and the US, focusing on addressing regulatory barriers and aligning export controls for smoother trade and deeper cooperation in critical areas.
3. CCIA's Concerns in U.S.-India Economic Relationship
- The CCIA (Computer & Communications Industry Association) acknowledges the efforts to enhance bilateral trade but raises concerns about the "significant imbalance" and "misalignment" in the U.S.- India economic relationship.
- According to the CCIA, the Indian government has implemented protectionist industrial policies that favor domestic players over U.S. digital service providers, resulting in a tilted playing field.
- One example highlighted by the CCIA is India's guidelines on sharing geospatial data, which allegedly provide preferential treatment to Indian Companies.
- The CCIA also expresses dissatisfaction with India's departure from democratic norms and values, citing increased government censorship and control over political speech, making it challenging for U.S. companies to operate in India.
4. India's Expanded Equalisation Levy on Digital Services
- In 2016, India introduced an "equalization levy" of 6% on specific digital services received by non-residents without a permanent establishment in India from Indian residents.
- In 2020, the "Equalisation Levy 2.0" was implemented, imposing a 2% tax n gross revenues received by non-resident e-commerce operators from providing e-commerce supplies or services to Indian residents or non-resident companies with a permanent establishment in India.
- The initial introduction of the equalization levy in 2016 resulted in double taxation and complexity in the taxation framework. It raised concerns about constitutional validity and compliance with International obligations.
- The 2020 amendment expanded the levy's scope, making it sweeping and vague.
- In 2021, instead of introducing an amendment, the Indian government issued a "clarification" stating that the expression "e-commerce supply or service" includes the online sale of goods, online provision of services, and facilitation of online sales or services.
5. Concerns Regarding India's IT Rules 2021
- The IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021 have been flagged by a consortium of foreign tech firms as "problematic policies".
- The rules impose compliance burdens on social media intermediaries (SMIs) and platforms with five million or more registered users, affecting several U.S. firms.
- Points of concern include impractical compliance deadlines and content takedown protocols. Intermediaries are required to remove content within 24 hours of receiving a government or court order.
- The rules also require platforms to appoint a local compliance officer.
- Amendments made to the rules oblige SMIs to remove information or communication links related to prohibited content categories within 72 hours of receiving a complaint.
- Criticism is directed at the establishment of three-member Grievance Appellate Committees (GAC), which have the power to hear user complaints about content-related decisions by SMIs and can overturn those decisions.
6. Ambiguities in India's Digital Personal Data Protection Bill
- Foreign tech firms appreciate improvements in the fourth draft of the Digital Personal Data Protection Bill released in November 2022.
- However, uncertainties remain regarding cross-border data flows, compliance timelines, and data localization.
- India, with over 759 million active internet users, holds significant data and aims to become a hub for data processing.
- India's policy on data flow across borders will have global implications, similar to the impact of the European Union's GDPR.
- Data localization requirements can increase operating costs for companies and may be viewed as discriminatory by foreign firms.
- The new draft has minimal information on cross-border data flows, stating that it will only be allowed to countries notified by the Indian government.
- The basis for country notifications and the terms for data transfers are not specified, raising questions about the potential backlisting of non-notified countries.
- The CCIA suggests a proactive approach supporting cross-border data flows through certifications, standard contractual clauses, and binding corporate rules instead of an opaque approach.
7. CCIA's Concerns about the Draft Telecommunications Bill, 2022
- The CCIA argues that the draft Telecommunications Bill has an expansive regulatory scope that would redefine "telecommunication services" to include internet-enabled services that differ significantly from traditional telephony and broadband services.
- The current draft includes both Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) and Over-the-Top (OTT) communication services within the definition of " telecommunication services."
- OTT communication services, such as messaging platforms (WhatsApp, Telegram, Signal, and Google Meet) utilize TSP's network infrastructure to offer features that compete with traditional telecommunication services like voice calls and SMS.
- If passed in its current form, the proposed law would impose burdensome obligations on platforms, including licensing requirements, government access to data, encryption requirements, internet shutdowns, infrastructure seizure, and potentially monetary obligations.
- The CCIA argues that the law would introduce a global authorization/licensing requirement for digital firms, which is unprecedented.
8. Proposed "Digital Competition Act" and Estimated Taxes
- The Parliamentary Committee on Finance proposed a "Digital Competition Act" last year to tackle anti-competitive practices by big tech companies.
- The proposed act includes the implementation of estimated taxes specifically for significant digital intermediaries.
- The CCIA suggests that the proposal seems to be primarily aimed at U.S. tech companies.
- The details and specifics of the proposed act and estimated taxes are not provided in the given information.
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For Prelims: Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET), CCIA (Computer & Communications Industry Association), Equalisation Levy 2.0, Double taxation, IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021, Social Media Intermediaries (SMIs), Grievance Appellate Committees (GAC), Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) and Over-the-Top (OTT).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the recent trends and developments in India-U.S. digital trade, highlighting its significance for both countries. Examine the key sectors and areas of cooperation in this domain. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. Recently, the USA decided to support India's membership in multilateral export control regimes called the "Australia Group" and the "Wassenaar Arrangement". What is the difference between them?
1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement that aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
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Source: The Hindu
FEMINIST INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY
1. Introduction
- Shifting dynamics in the global order following World War II necessitated new approaches to understanding international Relations (IR).
- The emergence of trans-state actors, ethnic conflicts and the peaceful conclusion of the Cold War highlighted the need to consider multiple actors and institutions beyond the state-centric view.
- One such perspective is the feminist approach to IR, which examines the international arena through a gendered lens.
2. The Origin of Feminist IR Theory
- The origins of feminist IR Theory can be traced back to the 1980s when a group of scholars began to challenge the traditional assumptions of IR theory.
- These scholars argued that IR theory was gendered and that it excluded the experiences of women.
- They called for a more inclusive and gender-sensitive approach to IR theory.
3. First-Generation Feminist Perspectives
- The initial wave of feminist perspectives in IR aimed to deconstruct the fundamental assumptions laid down by realist and liberal scholars.
- Realists perceived the international arena as anarchic, driven by power politics and the pursuit of security.
- Liberals emphasized cooperation and alliances to safeguard interests.
- Feminist theoreticians challenged these assumptions, arguing that they were based on masculine conceptions of human nature, neglecting social reproduction and development.
- They highlighted the gendered nature of the global order, which perpetuated and thrived on gender subordination.
4. Women in War
- Women's role in international conflicts has often been reduced to that of vulnerable individuals in need of protection.
- However, feminist perspectives aim to make women visible in discussions and processes related to war.
- For instance, feminist scholar Cynthia Enloe analyzes the Iraq War through a gendered lens, exploring the militarization of American housewives and Iraqi women.
- She reveals how women's roles extend beyond caregiving and encompass support for war-torn families through diverse means, including prostitution near military bases.
- The masculinization of war discourse renders women invisible, obscuring their experiences and the use of sexual violence as a military strategy.
5. Empirical Research
- Feminist IR research takes various forms, expanding on or going beyond existing IR theories.
- It encompasses categories such as "women in international development" and "gender and development" examining how male bias hinders poverty eradication, conflict prevention and community empowerment projects.
- Feminist security studies broaden the definition of security to include issues like domestic violence, rape, poverty, gender subordination and ecological destruction as global security threats.
6. Different Typologies of Feminist IR Theory
Feminist IR theories can be categorized into different typologies, including liberal feminism, feminist constructivism, feminist poststructuralism and postcolonial feminism.
6.1. Liberal Feminism
- Liberal feminists within IR do not fundamentally challenge traditional IR ideas but question their content.
- They analyze the gender gap in global politics and the disproportionate impact of war on women, emphasizing the need for greater female participation in high-level politics to promote peaceful and humanitarian policies.
6.2. Feminist Constructivism
- Feminist Constructivism explores the role of gendered identities in global politics.
- It views gender not merely as a variable of analysis but as a core component influencing structures and personal relationships.
- This perspective emphasizes the impact of gender on unequal global material conditions.
6.3. Feminist Poststrcuturalism
- Feminist poststructuralist approaches focus on language and meaning-making in IR.
- They critique binary linguistic oppositions, such as order or anarchy or developed or underdeveloped, which perpetuate masculine dominance.
- Poststructuralists challenge the assumption that more women in high-level diplomatic positions will necessarily lead to pacifist policies, highlighting the risks of essentializing gender characteristics.
6.4. Post colonial Feminisim
- Postcolonial feminism within IR challenges the assumption of universal women's experiences across regions and cultures.
- It critiques the portrayal of women in the Global South as powerless and lacking agency, emphasizing the diversity within this category.
- Postcolonial feminists expose how policies, such as structural adjustment programs, can disproportionately affect women, particularly rural women, leading to a feminization of poverty.
7. The Way Forward
- While feminist IR theories have gained recognition, they remain on the margins of the discipline.
- In an era marked by environmental challenges and the influence of non-state actors, feminist perspectives have the potential to offer meaningful analysis and real-world solutions.
- Applying feminist approaches to issues like the targeting of Yazidi women by ISIS or the Armed resistance of Kurdish women against terrorism can shed light on the impact of non-state actors on individuals and their communities.
- By broadening our understanding of international relations through a gendered lens, we can develop a more holistic worldview.
