WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
1. Context
The recently concluded meeting of the G20 working group on trade and investment focused on the important issue of WTO reform. This has been on the global agenda for a while including that of the G20, whose members are key players in the WTO.
2. World Trade Organisation (WTO)
- WTO is an international organization set up in 1995 by replacing the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) under the Marrakesh Agreement.
- It is the only global international organization dealing with international Trade between nations.
- Its HQ is located in Geneva, Switzerland.
- Currently, WTO has 164 members and India is a founding member of WTO.
- Currently, the head (Director-General) of WTO is Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala.
3. Objectives of WTO
- To formulate and implement rules for international trade.
- To provide a platform for negotiating and monitoring further trade liberalization.
- To provide a platform for the settlement of disputes.
- Providing assistance to the developing, least-developed, and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.
- To cooperate with the other major economic institutions (like the UN, World Bank, IMF, etc.) involved in global economic management.
4. Important trade agreements of WTO
- Agreement on Agriculture (AoA),
- Agreement on TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights),
- Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS),
- Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT),
- Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS),
- General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) etc.
5. Geoeconomic Shift and the Need for WTO Reforms
- Over 50 years ago, Richard Cooper argued that "trade policy is foreign policy," emphasizing the value of economic interdependence to deter security confrontation.
- Today, the world is characterized by heightened securitization of international economic relations and a shift towards geoeconomic considerations, challenging the belief in economic interdependence as a deterrent to security issues.
- The WTO, established to legalize and monitor economic interdependence, faces challenges due to unilateralism in international economic relations, particularly by developed countries like the US, who show little regard for WTO law.
- Economic policies such as industrial subsidies and local content requirements have resurfaced, forgotten WTO rules like security exceptions are gaining prominence, and efforts to weaken trade multilateralism in favor of external plurilateral alignments are being made.
- Jeffrey Schott argues that expecting the G20 countries, especially the developed ones, to reform the WTO for the better is naïve, as a weak WTO aligns with the US foreign policy objective of strategic rivalry with China.
- Schott suggests that middle powers like India, Indonesia, Brazil, and South Africa should take the lead in pushing for WTO reforms to address the current challenges.
- Developing countries should prioritize four critical areas for WTO reform, with special attention on preserving the principle of special and differential treatment (SDT), which provides special rights to developing countries and obligates developed countries to treat them more favorably.
6. Key Areas for WTO Reforms
Strengthening Special and Differential Treatment (SDT): Lawyers Vineet Hegde and Jan Wouters highlight that only 21% of SDT provisions in WTO agreements obligate developed countries to provide differential treatment to developing countries. Efforts should focus on giving more enforceability to SDT provisions.
Reviving the Appellate Body: The WTO's appellate body has been paralyzed since 2019 due to the US's indifference. Other G20 countries need to either convince the US to change its stance or revive the appellate body without US participation to restore the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism.
Balancing Consensus and Plurilateral Discussions: With consensus-based decision-making in the WTO proving slow, there has been a shift towards plurilateral discussions on specific issues. While plurilateral agreements offer opportunities for rule-making, there is a need to establish a multilateral governance framework that incorporates key principles of non-discrimination, transparency, and inclusivity.
Addressing Transparency Gap: The WTO lacks transparency in terms of notification requirements. Members have a poor record of notifying laws and regulations affecting trade, leading to increased trade costs, particularly for developing countries. Efforts should be made to improve compliance with notification obligations.
Importance of Trade Multilateralism: Despite current trends, trade multilateralism remains crucial for countries like India. India, as the G20 President, should collaborate with other nations to drive the WTO reforms agenda, promoting inclusive trade multilateralism.
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For Prelims: World Trade Organisation (WTO), General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT), Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), and General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). For Mains: 1. Discuss the key areas for reforms in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and their significance for promoting inclusive trade multilateralism. (250 Words) |
Previous year Questions
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1. In the context of the affairs which of the following is the phrase "Special Safeguard Mechanisms" mentioned in the news frequently? (UPSC 2010) A. United Nations Environment Program B. World Trade Organization Agreement C. ASEAN-India D. Free Trade G-20 Summits Answer: B 2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. India has ratified the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) of the WTO 2. TFA is a part of WTO's Bali Ministerial Package of 2013 3. TFA came into force in January 2016 Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 3. In the context of which of the following do you sometimes find the terms 'amber box, blue box, and green box' in the news? (UPSC 2016) A. WTO affairs B. SAARC affairs C. UNFCCC affairs D. India-EU negotiations on FTA Answer: A |
Source: The Indian Express
SUMMER SOLSTICE
1. Context
The longest day of the year, for anyone living north of the Equator, is June 21. The day is referred to as the Summer Solstice and it occurs when the sun is directly over the day is referred to as summer solstice and it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer or more specifically right over 23.5 degrees north latitude.
2. Reasons for the occurrence of the summer solstice
- Since Earth rotates on its axis, the Northern Hemisphere gets more direct sunlight between March and September over a day, which also means people living in the Northern Hemisphere experience summer during this time.
- The rest of the year, the Southern Hemisphere gets more sunlight.
- During the solstice, the Earth's axis around which the planet spins, completing one turn each day is tilted in a way that the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun and the South Pole is away from it.
- Typically, this imaginary axis passes right through the middle of the Earth from top to bottom and is always tilted at 23.5 degrees concerning the Sun.
- Therefore, the solstice, as NASA puts it, is that instant in time when the North Pole points more directly toward the Sun than at any other time during the year. Solstice means "Sun Stands Still" in Latin.
- While the solstice occurs at the same time across the world, different countries experience it at different times according to their time zones.
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Image Source: Britannica
3. The Solstice Phenomenon
- This day sees the Earth receiving a greater amount of energy from the Sun.
- The maximum amount of sunlight received by the Northern Hemisphere during this time is usually on June 20, 21 or 22.
- In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere receives most sunlight on December 21, 22 or 23 when the northern hemisphere has its longest nights or the winter solstice.
- The amount of light received by a specific area in the Northern Hemisphere during the summer solstice depends on the latitudinal location of the place.
- The further north one moves from the equator, the more light one receives during the summer solstice.
- At the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set during the solstice.
- Summer solstice, however, does not necessarily mean the earliest sunrise or the latest sunset. That depends on the latitudinal location of the country.
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For Prelims: Summer solstice, Arctic Circle, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, North Pole, Tropic of Cancer, NASA, time zones
For Mains: 1. Examine the impact of the Summer Solstice on seasonal changes, agricultural practices and natural phenomena. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. On 21st June, the Sun (UPSC 2019)
A. does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
B. does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
C. shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
D. shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
Answer: A
2. Consider the following pairs: (CTET Social Science 2022)
a) Summer Solstice - 21 June
b) Winter Solstice - 22 November
c) Equinox - 21 March
Which of the following pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
1. a and c only 2. a only 3. b and c only 4. a, b and c
Answer: 1
3. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year normally occurs in the: (UPSC 2022)
A. First half of the month of June
B. Second half of the month of June
C. First half of the month of July
D. Second half of the month of July
Answer: B
4. Westerlies in the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent than in the northern hemisphere. Why? (UPSC 2011)
1. Southern hemisphere has less landmass as compared to the northern hemisphere.
2. Coriolis force is higher in the southern hemisphere as compared to the northern hemisphere. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
5. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1 and 3 only
Answer: C
6. Who discovered North Pole? (Rajasthan PTET 2011)
1. Amundson 2. Robert Peary 3. John Cobot 4. Captain Cook
Answer: 2
7. Which one of the following statements best describes the 'Polar Code'? (UPSC 2022)
1. It is the international code of safety for ships operating in polar waters.
2. It is the agreement of the countries around the North Pole regarding the demarcation of their territories in the polar region.
3. It is a set of norms to be followed by the countries whose scientists undertake research studies in the North Pole and South Pole.
4. It is a trade and security agreement of the member countries of the Arctic Council.
Answer: 1
8. The tropic of cancer passes through (ACC 122 ACT 2020)
A. India and Iran
B. Iran and Pakistan
C. India and Saudi Arabia
D. Iran and Iraq
Answer: C
9. The Tropic of Cancer passes through which one of the following countries? (UPSC CAPF 2018)
A. North Sudan B. Chad C. Mali D. Yemen
Answer: C
10. Which of the following is the name of the NASA programme to land first woman and next man on the Moon by 2024? (SSC MTS 2021)
A. Orion B. Apollo C. Artemis D. Nike
Answer: C
11. How many time zones are there on Earth? (Telangana Police SI Mains 2016)
A. 20 B. 22 C. 24 D. 26
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
KYOTO PROTOCOL
1. Context
Recently, the European Union (EU) has put forward a proposal, called the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The US, Canada, and Japan are planning similar measures. This involves imposing tariffs on imports from other countries that are seen to be using carbon-intensive methods of production. It is argued that the stringent environmental regulation in the EU makes the production of polluting industries move to countries with relatively lax regulation. These sectors will contract in countries where carbon is priced higher, causing a “carbon leakage”.
2. What is Kyoto Protocol?
- The Kyoto Protocol was an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere.
- The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions.
- The protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet.
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Other agreements like the Doha Amendment and Paris Climate Agreement address global warming.
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Ongoing talks in 2021 with complex issues of politics, money, and lack of consensus.
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U.S. withdrew from the agreement, citing unfair mandates and economic impact.
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Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
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Paris Agreement includes commitments from major GHG-emitting countries to reduce pollution.
3. Understanding Kyoto Protocol
- The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly.
- The Protocol was linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on Dec. 11, 1997, and became international law on Feb. 16, 2005.
- Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for specific periods and participated in carbon credit trading.
- If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would be penalized by receiving a lower emissions limit in the following period.
4. Major Tenets
- Developed, industrialized countries made a promise under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce their annual hydrocarbon emissions by an average of 5.2% by the year 2012.
- This number would represent about 29% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions.
- Targets depended on the individual country. As a result, each nation had a different target to meet by that year.
- Members of the European Union (EU) pledged to cut emissions by 8%, while the U.S. and Canada promised to reduce their emissions by 7% and 6%, respectively, by 2012.
5. Responsibilities of Developed Vs. Developing Nations
- The Kyoto Protocol recognized that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity.
- As such, the protocol placed a heavier burden on developed nations than on less-developed nations.
- The Kyoto Protocol mandated that 37 industrialized nations plus the EU cut their GHG emissions.
- Developing nations were asked to comply voluntarily, and more than 100 developing countries, including China and India, were exempted from the Kyoto Agreement altogether.
6. Particular function for Developing Countries
- The protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and Non-Annex I referred to developing countries.
- The protocol placed emission limitations on Annex I countries only. Non-Annex I nations participated by investing in projects designed to lower emissions in their countries.
- For these projects, developing countries earned carbon credits, which they could trade or sell to developed countries, allowing the developed nations a higher level of maximum carbon emissions for that period.
- In effect, this function helped the developed countries to continue emitting GHG vigorously.
- The United States, which had ratified the original Kyoto Agreement dropped out of the protocol in 2001.
- The U.S. believed that the agreement was unfair because it called only for industrialized nations to limit emissions reductions, and it felt that doing so would hurt the U.S. economy.
The Kyoto Protocol established three different mechanisms to enable countries additional ways to meet their emission-limitation target. The three mechanisms are:
- The International Emissions Trading mechanism: Countries that have excess emission units permitted to them but not used can engage in carbon trading and sell these units to countries over their target.
- The Clean Development Mechanism: Countries with emission-reducing or limiting commitments may implement emission-reducing projects in developing countries to earn certified emission-reduction credits.
- The Joint Implementation mechanism: Countries with emission-reducing or limiting commitments to earn emission-reducing units from a project in another party.
- In December 2012, after the Protocol's first commitment period ended, parties to the Kyoto Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to adopt an amendment to the original Kyoto Agreement.
- This so-called Doha Amendment added new emission-reduction targets for the second commitment period, 2012-2020, for participating countries.
- The Doha Amendment had a short life. In 2015, at the sustainable development summit held in Paris, all UNFCCC participants signed yet another Pact, the Paris Climate Agreement, which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
- The Paris Climate Agreement is a landmark environmental pact that was adopted by nearly every nation in 2015 to address climate change and its negative effects.
- The agreement includes commitments from all major GHG-emitting countries to cut their climate-altering pollution and to strengthen those commitments over time.
- A major directive of the deal calls for reducing global GHG emissions to limit the earth's temperature increase in this century to 2 degrees (Preferring a 1.5-degree increase ) Celsius above preindustrial levels.
- The Paris Agreement also provides a way for developed nations to assist developing nations in their efforts to adopt climate control, and it creates a framework for monitoring and reporting a country's climate goals transparently.
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For Prelims: Kyoto Protocol, Paris Climate Agreement, Doha Amendment, European Union (EU), Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, Carbon credit Trading, UNFCCC (United Nations framework convention on climate change),
and Clean Development mechanism.
For Mains: 1. What were the main goals and objectives of the Kyoto Protocol? Explain Why did the United States withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol, and what were the reasons cited? (250 words).
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Previous year Question
Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2016)
Terms have sometimes been seen in the news Their origin
1. Annex-I Countries Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions Nagoya Protocol
3. Clean Development Mechanism Kyoto Protocol
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer C
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Source: Investopedia
CAG
1. Context
The Enforcement Directorate (ED) has conducted raids on 14 Premises in Mumbai and nearby areas about an alleged scam worth Rs 38 crores in the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation's (BMC) Jumbo Covid Care Facility Centres.
2. Key Points
- Among the premises raided by the ED was the BMC's Central Purchase Department (CPD) office in Byculla, Mumbai.
- The raids aimed to uncover evidence related to the alleged financial irregularities in the BMCs Jumbo Covid Care Facility Centres.
- Following the alleged irregularities, the Maharashtra government formed a Special Investigation Team (SIT) headed by the Commissioner of Mumbai Police on June 19.
- The SIT was tasked with investigating financial irregularities across several departments of the BMC.
3. About CAG
- Article 148 of the Indian Constitution provides for an Independent Office of Comptroller Auditor General (CAG)
- Head of the Indian Audits and Account Department
- It is an apex authority for external and internal audits of the expenses of the National and State governments
4. Appointments, Term & Removal
- The CAG is appointed by the President, they should take oath before the president or before someone from the President's office
- CAG holds Office for six years or up to the age of 65 years whichever is early
- CAG can resign by addressing their resignation to the President
- CAG can be removed by the President from Office in the same manner as a Supreme court Judge or Resolution passed by the President in both houses of the Parliament with a special majority, either on the ground of misbehaviour or incapacity
- CAG is not eligible to join any Central Government Post or any State government Post
- Expenses, allowances, and salaries are drawn from the Consolidated Fund of India.
5. Duties of CAG
Articles 148,149,150 and 151 of the Constitution of India describe the function and power of the CAG office
- CAG will conduct all expenses from Consolidated Fund in all the states and UT has a legislative assembly
- CAG Audits all the expenses from the Contingency Fund of India and Public accounts of India as well as the Contingency Fund of State and Public Accounts of a State
- CAG Audits all trading accounts, manufacturing, profit and loss accounts, balance sheets and other subsidiary accounts kept by any department of the Central and State Governments
- CAG Audits the receipts and expenditures of all bodies and Authorities which are financed by the Central and State Government revenues
- CAG Submits audit reports relating to the Central Government to President and State Governments to Governor, they will furnish these reports in parliament as well as in-state assemblies
- CAG submits three reports to the President 1-Report on Appropriation accounts, a report on financial accounts, a report on public undertakings
6. CAG Audit and Financial Irregularities
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India conducted an audit of expenses in nine BMC departments between November 28, 2019, and October 31, 2022.
The audit was initiated by the state government, which highlighted alleged irregularities amounting to Rs 12, 000 crores in 76 projects, primarily undertaken during the pandemic.
Obstacles Faced by CAG The CAG's audit covered Rs 8, 500 crores of the total expenditure, as the BMC objected to auditing the remaining amount. The BMC issued a legal notice to halt the audit of any acts, works or decisions related to Covid management and expenditure amounting to Rs 3, 538.73 crores, citing provisions of the Epidemic Act, 1897 and the Disaster Management Act 2005.
Project Audits and Findings The CAG report, spanning 146 pages, highlighted weaknesses in internal control mechanisms within the BMC. It revealed instances where work orders were awarded without tenders, contractual documents were not executed and third-party auditors were not appointed to assess the quality of work.
Departments Under Scrutiny Various BMC departments were found to have financial irregularities. The Development Plan Department was flagged for overvaluation of expenditure during land acquisition and delays in acquiring land for public amenities. The Bridges Department awarded work orders without registering private contractors with the BMC. The report also mentioned cost escalations, delayed clearances and irregularities in various other projects and departments.
Financial Transactions During the Pandemic While the ED is investigating financial transactions during the Pandemic period, the CAG report sheds light on the wide-ranging financial irregularities across multiple BMC departments.
7. The way forward
The ED raids and the CAG report have brought to light alleged financial irregularities in the BMC's operations. Investigations and further actions will be taken to determine the extent of the scam and hold those responsible accountable.
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For Prelims: Enforcement Directorate, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, Special Investigation Team, Comptroller Auditor General, Consolidated Fund of India, Contingency Fund of India, Report on Appropriation accounts, a report on financial accounts, a report on public undertakings,
For Mains:
1. Examine the constitutional provisions and powers of the CAG in conducting audits of government expenses at both the central and state levels. Discuss the significance of the CAG's role in upholding financial discipline and promoting good governance. (250 Words)
2. Explore the role of technology and digital platforms in improving financial oversight and preventing irregularities in government projects. Discuss the potential benefits and challenges associated with the implementation of digital auditing mechanisms. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following is not correct in respect of Directorate of Enforcement? (CDS 2021)
A. It is a specialized financial investigation agency under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance.
B. It enforces the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999.
C. It enforces the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002.
D. It enforces the Prohibition of Benami Property Transaction Act, 1988.
Answer: D
2. The Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG) of India can be removed from office only by the: (UPSC CAPF 2015)
A. President on the advice of the Union Cabinet.
B. Chief justice of the Supreme Court.
C. President of India after an address in both Houses of Parliament.
D. President on the advice of Chief Justice of India.
Answer: C
3. With reference to the Union Government, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)
1. The Department of Revenue responsible for the preparation of Union Budget that is presented to the Parliament.
2. No amount can be withdrawn from the Consolidated Fund of India without the authorization from the Parliament of India
3. All the disbursements made from Public Account also need authorization from the Parliament of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
4. The Contingency Fund of India is placed at whose disposal? (SSC CGL 2017)
A. The Prime Minister
B. Judge of Supreme Court
C. The President
D. The Finance Minister
Answer: C
5. In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for their intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)? (UPSC 2012)
1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares a national emergency/financial emergency.
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programs by the ministers are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. Information from CAG reports can be used by investigating agencies to press charges against those who have violated the law while managing public finances.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1, 3 and 4 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
UPANISHADS
1. Context
Prime Minister Narendra Modi was met by US President Joe Biden and First Lady Jill Biden at the White House in Washington DC Wednesday (June 21, 2023) night Thursday in India – where the first couple hosted him for a private dinner.
PM Modi presented the Bidens with several gifts, including a 7.5-carat lab-grown diamond, an exquisite sandalwood box, and a first edition print of the book The Ten Principal Upanishads from 1937.
PM Modi presented the Bidens with several gifts, including a 7.5-carat lab-grown diamond, an exquisite sandalwood box, and a first edition print of the book The Ten Principal Upanishads from 1937.
2. Ten Principal Upanishads
- The Ten Principal Upanishads, translated from Sanskrit by Shri Purohit Swami, a scholar of Hindu scripture, and Irish poet WB Yeats, is considered to be one of the best translations of the Upanishads, some of the most important Hindu religious texts.
- Written in the mid-1930s, the book was a product of Yeats’ desire to create a translation that is true to the original text while still accessible to the layperson.
- The translation that would read as though the original had been written in common English”, Yeats wrote in the preface of the original.
3. The two categories of Hindu scriptures
- There are broadly two categories of Hindu sacred texts: shruti (loosely translated as “the revealed”) and smriti (“the remembered”).
- The first category is considered to be the most authoritative and consists of the four Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva) and accompanying texts. These include Brahmanas (ritual texts), Aranyakas (“forest” or “wilderness” texts), and Upanishads (philosophical texts).
- The second category of Hindu scriptures is less authoritative – in many ways they are considered to be derived from the first – but more popularly known.
- These include the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, Dharmashastras, Puranas, and all other post-Vedic scriptures.
4. The Upanishads
Significance of the Upanishads
- Also known as Vedanta, signifying the end of the Veda.
- Speculate on the ontological connection between humanity and the cosmos.
- Foundational texts in Hindu theology, attracted more attention than the Vedas.
Time Period and Concepts
- Dated roughly to 800-500 BC.
- Discuss concepts like transmigration central to Hindu tradition.
- Explore the consequences of conduct and birth based on conduct.
Influence of Adi Shankara
- Eighth-century Hindu scholar Adi Shankara gave particular importance to the Upanishads.
- His interpretations synthesized the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
- Advaita Vedanta is a non-dualistic philosophy emphasizing the world's illusory nature and Brahman's ultimate reality.
Atman and Brahman
- Upanishads explore the relationship between the atman (individual self) and the brahman (ultimate reality).
- Focus on the distinction between the transient phenomenal world and the eternal Brahman.
There are ten main (or principal) Upanishads
- Esha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka.
5. William Butler Yeats
- WB Yeats (1865-1939) is highly regarded in modern English literature. Considered one of the most influential figures in the field.
- Yeats is globally recognized as the most prominent Irish poet of the 20th century. His work embodies the spirit of Ireland.
- Influenced by John Keats and William Wordsworth. Yeats' poetry spans decades and covers diverse themes. Some poems offer political and social commentary, while others delve into esoteric subjects.
- Role in the Irish Literary Revival. Yeats played a central role in the Irish Literary Revival. His work contributed to the resurgence of Irish cultural and literary traditions.
- Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923. Recognized for his inspired poetry that artistically represents the spirit of a nation.
6. WB Yeats Interest in the Upanishads
- WB Yeats encountered Indian themes in his poems written in 1889. Influenced by Mohini Chatterjee, a prominent figure in Bengal's Theosophical circles.
- Yeats formed a close friendship with Rabindranath Tagore, a renowned Indian poet. Tagore's manuscripts, including his translation of Gitanjali, greatly impressed Yeats.
- Yeats wrote an introduction to Tagore's Nobel Prize-winning collection of poems.
- He Played a significant role in bringing Tagore's work to the attention of Western audiences.
- Yeats had a long-standing interest in India and its spiritual texts.
- Dissatisfied with available translations of the Upanishads, he sought to create a more accessible version.
- Yeats collaborated with scholar Shri Purohit Swami, who had extensive knowledge of India.
- Together, they translated The Ten Principal Upanishads, aiming to make them accessible to laypeople.
- Yeats criticized earlier translations for their unnatural English and lack of authenticity.
- He aimed to capture the essence of the Upanishads as they were originally sung by ancient farmers.
- The Ten Principal Upanishads was first published by Faber and Faber of London in
April 1937.
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For Prelims: Upanishads, Shruthi, Smriti, William Butler Yeats, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Dharmashastras, Puranas, John Keats, William Wordsworth, and Rabindranath Tagore.
For Mains: 1. How did WB Yeats contribute to the popularization and translation of the Upanishads? Analyze the impact of his work. (250 Words)
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Source: The Indian Express
