• Major Indian commercial vehicle manufacturers like Tata Motors, Volvo Eicher, and Ashok Leyland are intensifying their efforts in developing hydrogen-powered trucks and buses. They are investing heavily in research and development while expanding manufacturing capacities.
• Simultaneously, Indian energy companies are striving to scale up green hydrogen production and drive down costs to enhance their competitiveness against other fuels.
• Hydrogen is poised to become a cornerstone in the transportation sector shortly. With India being a substantial and growing market for both vehicles and energy, the widespread adoption of green hydrogen as a vehicular fuel holds immense potential for the country.
• The utilization of green hydrogen offers substantial emissions reductions, crucial for combating global warming and climate change. India sees various benefits, including pollution mitigation, achieving climate targets, reducing dependency on costly fossil fuel imports, and seizing the opportunity to establish itself as a global hub for green hydrogen production and export.

4. MNRE Scheme for the Transportation Sector

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched a pilot project scheme in February to assess the viability of green hydrogen as a transportation fuel.

The scheme focuses on three key objectives

1. Technical Feasibility and Performance: Validate the technical capabilities and performance of green hydrogen when used as a fuel for vehicles.
2. Economic Viability: Evaluate the economic feasibility of green hydrogen-powered vehicles, including factors like costs and potential returns.
3. Safe Operation Demonstration: Showcase the safe operation of both hydrogen-powered vehicles and the associated refuelling stations.

The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways will appoint a dedicated agency to manage the scheme. This agency will then invite proposals for pilot projects. Following a selection process, the chosen company or consortium will become the executing agency responsible for carrying out the project.

Funding for these pilot projects will come in the form of viability gap funding (VGF) approved by the MNRE based on the recommendations of a Project Appraisal Committee. The VGF amount will be determined on a project-by-project basis, considering factors like specific needs, merits, and overall feasibility. The executing agency will have two years to complete the pilot project.

A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle operates similarly to traditional cars powered by diesel or petrol, but with a key difference: there are no carbon emissions produced during combustion.

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen electrochemically by converting it into electricity through a fuel cell. This process involves storing hydrogen in a high-pressure tank and generating electricity, with water being the only byproduct. While hydrogen ICE vehicles don't emit carbon, research suggests that burning hydrogen is less energy-efficient compared to converting it into electricity in a fuel cell.

Advantages of Hydrogen FCEVs Over Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

Compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where the battery constitutes the heaviest part of the vehicle, hydrogen FCEVs are typically lighter. This is because hydrogen is a lighter element, and a fuel cell stack weighs less than an electric vehicle (EV) battery. This feature makes hydrogen fuel cell technology a promising alternative to EV battery technology, particularly for heavy-duty trucks that can benefit from increased payload capacity without emitting smoke from burning diesel.

The Promise of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology

Research indicates that long-haul FCEVs can carry freight amounts comparable to diesel trucks, whereas long-haul BEVs face a weight penalty of up to 25% due to heavier batteries. Given the imperative to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector while maintaining revenue-generating payload capacity, green hydrogen emerges as a promising solution.

6. Challenges Facing the Adoption of Green Hydrogen in Transportation

The widespread adoption of green hydrogen in the transportation sector encounters several significant challenges

• The primary obstacle is the high cost of green hydrogen production. Additionally, challenges related to storage and transportation at scale further compound the issue. However, ongoing technological innovation and increased production scaling are expected to drive costs down in the coming years.
• Despite advancements, green hydrogen-powered vehicles are not yet perceived as a viable alternative to four-wheel electric vehicles (EVs). Challenges such as fuel costs and the establishment of supporting infrastructure hinder their widespread acceptance. Recent closures of hydrogen refuelling stations in California, despite remaining operational for heavy-duty vehicles, underscore the challenges in this regard.
• For hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) to compete effectively with battery electric vehicles (BEVs), the cost of green hydrogen needs to range between $3 and $6.5 per kilogram by 2030. However, current retail prices in California are substantially higher, and the cost of building hydrogen refuelling stations for trucks is significantly greater than that of BEV stations.
• Specialized cylinders capable of storing green hydrogen pose another challenge. Existing cylinders designed for compressed natural gas (CNG) are unsuitable due to the higher pressure requirements of hydrogen. Developing high-pressure hydrogen cylinders with sufficient strength, typically using carbon fibre, incurs high costs, hampering hydrogen's adoption as a transport fuel.
• Hydrogen's flammability necessitates stringent safety measures compared to conventional fuels like diesel, petrol, or even CNG. Robust handling and safety standards are imperative before large-scale adoption can be pursued.
• Advancements in battery technologies, resulting in lighter EV batteries, may pose a long-term challenge to the viability of green hydrogen-powered heavy-duty commercial vehicles. As battery weight decreases, the attractiveness of hydrogen-powered vehicles may diminish.

ARBITRATION COUNCIL OF INDIA(ACI)

• The Arbitration Council of India (ACI) is a statutory body created to strengthen and professionalize the system of arbitration in India, making the country a more reliable and attractive destination for resolving commercial and legal disputes outside traditional courts.
• It was established under the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2019, which amended the original Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
• In simple terms, the main purpose of the ACI is to improve the quality, credibility, and efficiency of arbitration in India.
• Arbitration is a method where disputes—especially in business and contractual matters—are settled by neutral experts called arbitrators instead of through lengthy court trials.
• By creating a national-level authority, the government aimed to bring uniform standards and oversight to how arbitration is practiced across the country.
• One of the key roles of the ACI is to grade and accredit arbitration institutions. This means it evaluates arbitral institutions based on criteria such as infrastructure, quality of arbitrators, case management practices, and transparency.
• Institutions that meet the required standards are officially recognized, which helps parties choose reliable forums for resolving their disputes. Over time, this process is meant to raise overall confidence in India’s arbitration ecosystem.
• The ACI also plays a role in maintaining a database of qualified arbitrators. This helps ensure that parties have access to trained and experienced professionals, reducing concerns about bias, lack of expertise, or procedural irregularities.
• By promoting training and setting professional benchmarks, the Council contributes to building a pool of high-quality arbitration practitioners in the country

 

3. Proposed Mandate

 

• The 2019 legislative changes put forward the creation of the Arbitration Council of India as a central regulatory authority responsible for encouraging, modernising, and strengthening arbitration practices across the country.
• This framework was shaped by the suggestions of the High-Level Committee on Arbitration, led by Justice B.N. Srikrishna, which presented its findings in July 2017.
• Under these amendments, the Council was given broad responsibilities, such as evaluating and ranking arbitral institutions, recognising professional organisations that certify arbitrators, and maintaining a national record of arbitration awards issued in India.
• The proposal also stated that the ACI would be led by a Chairperson appointed by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
• This position could be held by a former Supreme Court judge, a former Chief Justice or judge of a High Court, or a distinguished expert in arbitration, along with ex officio members from the executive branch forming part of the Council

 

4. Institutional Independence

 

• One of the principal criticisms directed at the Council is its perceived lack of institutional independence.
• A majority of its members are either selected or appointed by the Union government, which has led to worries about the autonomy of the arbitration system in India—especially since the government itself is the largest party to legal disputes.
• Legal experts have pointed out that placing regulatory authority in a body dominated by government nominees, with powers to rate arbitration centres, certify arbitrators, and shape policy, raises serious concerns about neutrality and has little parallel in countries known for arbitration-friendly frameworks.
• Additional issues have been raised regarding the ACI’s responsibility for approving and assessing arbitral institutions.
• Although this approach is said to be influenced by models in Singapore and Hong Kong, there is an important difference. In those jurisdictions, arbitration is largely managed by a single, central institution rather than a regulator supervising numerous bodies.
• The 2019 amendments allow the ACI to recognise an unlimited number of arbitration institutions, which could weaken quality control, create heavy administrative burdens for the Council, and increase costs for public resources

 

5. Judicial Intervention restriction

 

• Under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, Indian courts have the authority to issue interim protections to safeguard the interests of parties involved in arbitration.
• Currently, such relief can be sought before the arbitration begins, while proceedings are ongoing, or even after an arbitral award is issued but prior to its enforcement in India.
• The draft Bill aims to redefine this role by restricting the courts’ power to grant interim measures only to two stages: before the start of arbitration or after the award has been delivered.
• It proposes a change to Section 9(2), which at present mandates that arbitration must be initiated within 90 days from the date a court grants pre-arbitration interim relief.
• Under the new proposal, this 90-day countdown would instead start from the date the application for interim relief is submitted, rather than when the court passes the order. The purpose behind this shift is to reduce delays caused by extended court involvement before arbitration formally begins.
• Another key recommendation is the addition of a new Section 9-A, which would permit parties to approach an emergency arbitrator for interim protection after arbitration has started but before the arbitral tribunal is formally constituted

 

6. 2024 draft bill mandate

 

• On October 18, 2024, the Union government issued the draft Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Bill, 2024 and opened it up for public feedback. The proposed legislation aims to revitalise institutional arbitration by introducing a range of structural changes.
• It offers a new definition of an “arbitral institution,” describing it as any body or organisation that administers arbitration proceedings under its own procedural framework or as agreed upon by the parties.
• This represents a shift away from the 2019 framework, which required such institutions to be formally notified or designated by the Supreme Court or a High Court.
• The draft also seeks to broaden the responsibilities of arbitral institutions by granting them certain powers that are currently exercised solely by the courts.
• These include the ability to extend the deadline for issuing arbitral awards, lower arbitrators’ fees in cases where delays are caused by the tribunal, and replace arbitrators when necessary.
• If implemented, these steps are expected to limit the extent of judicial involvement in arbitration proceedings.
• However, in March 2025, while responding to a query in Parliament, Union Law Minister Arjun Ram Meghwal stated that the Bill was still being examined

 

7. Way Forward

 

The report led by Justice B.N. Srikrishna observed that the ongoing prevalence of ad hoc arbitration in India largely stems from parties’ strong inclination toward controlling their own procedures. This tendency is further strengthened by long-standing doubts about the neutrality and administrative capacity of domestic arbitration institutions. The report emphasised that closing this gap in confidence is essential if Indian arbitral bodies are to compete effectively with well-established international institutions

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Arbitration, Alternate Dispute Resolution, International Arbitration Centre, Foreign Direct Investment, Startup India For Mains: Alternate Dispute Resolution, Impact of Arbitration on Efficiency of Function of Judiciary, Promoting Dispute Resolution in India.

 

Source: The Hindu

 

PSLV-C62 MISSION

 

 

1. Context

 

On January 12, the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) PSLV-C62 mission lifted off from Sriharikota carrying the EOS-N1 satellite along with 15 co-passenger satellites. Within minutes, ISRO said the mission had “encountered an anomaly during end of the PS3 stage”, and that a detailed analysis was initiated.

 

2. What is PSLV - C62 Mission?

 

 

• The PSLV-C62 mission refers to a launch conducted by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) using its trusted Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
• In simple terms, it was a space mission where India sent satellites into orbit using one of its most reliable rockets, often called the “workhorse of ISRO.”
• PSLV-C62 was carried out to place a scientific satellite into space for studying Earth’s atmosphere and near-space environment.
• The main payload of this mission was the XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite), which is India’s first dedicated space observatory to study polarisation of X-rays coming from extreme cosmic sources like black holes and neutron stars.
• By observing how X-rays behave in these intense regions of the universe, scientists can better understand the structure, behavior, and physical processes of such exotic objects.
• The rocket lifted off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, following a precisely calculated path to place the satellite into a low Earth orbit.
• Once in orbit, the satellite separated from the rocket and began its mission of collecting data and sending it back to scientists on Earth for analysis.
• What makes the PSLV-C62 mission especially significant is that it marked India’s entry into advanced space-based X-ray astronomy, a field dominated by only a few space agencies worldwide.
• It showcased ISRO’s growing capability not just in launching satellites, but also in developing sophisticated scientific instruments for deep space research.

 

3. About Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

 

• PSLV, or the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, is one of India’s most successful and reliable space rockets, developed and operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• It is often described as the “workhorse of ISRO” because of its long track record of consistently placing satellites into space with high precision.
• The PSLV was designed primarily to launch satellites into polar and Sun-synchronous orbits, which are special types of Earth orbits where a satellite passes over the same part of the Earth at the same local time every day.
• This makes it extremely useful for Earth observation, weather monitoring, mapping, and reconnaissance, as the lighting conditions remain consistent for imaging.
• Structurally, the PSLV is a four-stage rocket, meaning it has four main sections that fire one after the other as it climbs into space.
• These stages alternate between solid and liquid fuel engines, combining the simplicity and power of solid motors with the controllability and precision of liquid propulsion.
• This design gives PSLV both strength and accuracy, which is crucial for placing satellites into their exact target orbits.
• One of the reasons PSLV is internationally respected is its remarkable success rate. Since its first successful mission in the 1990s, it has launched hundreds of satellites for India and many other countries.
• A landmark moment came in 2017, when PSLV set a world record by launching 104 satellites in a single mission, demonstrating its capability to deploy multiple payloads in a highly coordinated and precise manner.
• Over the years, PSLV has been used for some of India’s most important space missions. It launched Chandrayaan-1, India’s first mission to the Moon, and the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan), which made India the first country to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt.
• These achievements showed that PSLV is not only reliable for Earth missions, but also capable of supporting ambitious interplanetary exploration

 

4. ISRO Missions List

 

 

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has carried out a wide range of missions that can broadly be understood across Earth observation, communication, navigation, scientific exploration, and interplanetary research.
• Together, these missions reflect how India’s space program has grown from focusing on national development to becoming a global player in space science and exploration.
• In the field of Earth observation, ISRO has launched several satellite series that help in agriculture, disaster management, weather forecasting, and resource mapping.
• The IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) satellites, such as Cartosat, Resourcesat, Oceansat, and RISAT, provide high-resolution images and data that support urban planning, flood monitoring, and climate studies. These satellites form the backbone of India’s ability to monitor its land, oceans, and atmosphere from space.
• For communication and broadcasting, ISRO operates the INSAT and GSAT series. These satellites support television broadcasting, mobile communication, internet services, telemedicine, and weather services across India. They play a vital role in connecting remote and rural regions, especially during emergencies and natural disasters.
• In the area of navigation, ISRO developed its own regional satellite navigation system called NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation).
• This system provides accurate positioning and timing services for India and the surrounding region, similar to how GPS works globally, but designed specifically for Indian needs such as transportation, fisheries, and disaster response.
• ISRO has also made a strong mark in space science and astronomy. Missions like AstroSat, India’s first space-based observatory, study distant stars, galaxies, and black holes across multiple wavelengths.
• The XPoSat mission focuses on understanding high-energy cosmic sources by measuring X-ray polarization, adding to India’s growing role in advanced astrophysics research.
• When it comes to planetary and interplanetary exploration, ISRO has achieved global recognition.
• Chandrayaan-1 discovered evidence of water molecules on the Moon. Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3 further explored the lunar surface, with Chandrayaan-3 making history by achieving a successful soft landing near the Moon’s south pole.
• The Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) placed India among a small group of nations to reach Mars orbit, and notably did so on its very first attempt.
• More recently, Aditya-L1, India’s first solar mission, was launched to study the Sun from a special observation point in space, helping scientists understand solar storms and their impact on Earth.
• ISRO has also been preparing for human spaceflight through the Gaganyaan mission, which aims to send Indian astronauts, or “Gagannauts,” into low Earth orbit aboard an indigenous spacecraft. This marks a major step toward India becoming one of the few countries capable of independent human space missions

 

5. PSLV- C61 Mission

 

• ISRO’s PSLV-C61 mission was launched with the EOS-09 satellite as its primary payload. The launch progressed normally through the initial two stages, but a malfunction occurred during the third stage, which failed to operate as expected.
• ISRO later reported that there was a decline in pressure inside the third-stage motor chamber while PS3 was active, leading the agency to announce that the mission did not achieve its intended objective.
• From the information released so far, both the C61 and C62 missions experienced critical issues during the PS3 phase after an otherwise stable ascent, preventing their satellites from being placed into their planned orbits, with only limited success in the case of the KID payload.
• In the C62 mission, the primary issue identified was an unexpected roll motion toward the end of the third-stage burn, whereas in C61, the failure was linked to a pressure loss in the PS3 motor casing

 

6. Way forward

 

After the incident, Thailand’s space agency GISTDA, which had the THEOS-2A satellite aboard PSLV-C62, stated that a fault occurring toward the end of the third-stage operation led to a problem with the rocket’s attitude control system. This caused the launch vehicle to stray from its intended flight path, making it impossible to release the satellites it was carrying. GISTDA added that both the rocket and the onboard payloads were expected to re-enter the atmosphere and disintegrate over the southern Indian Ocean. The nature of this malfunction was similar to what had been observed before the PSLV-C61 failure on May 18, 2025.

 

 

For Prelims: PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk-III, SSLV For Mains: GS III- Science & Technology- Satellite Applications, Challenges and Solutions

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only Answer: A

Source: The Hindu

 

 

CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (CRA)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Climate change is real, and for India to continue meeting domestic food demands, agriculture needs to cope with the increasing unpredictability of the weather, declining soil health, and growing air pollution.

 

2. What is climate-resilient agriculture?

 

 

• Climate-resilient agriculture relies on a combination of biotechnological innovations and allied technologies to shape sustainable farming methods and lower reliance on chemical-based inputs, without compromising yields.
• Key approaches include the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides, and assessments of soil microbial health. Advances such as genome editing enable the development of crop varieties that can tolerate stresses like drought, high temperatures, salinity, and pest attacks.
• Alongside this, AI-based analytical tools process diverse climatic and agronomic data to design location-specific agricultural practices.
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes climate-resilient agriculture as the capacity of farming systems to foresee, prepare for, adapt to, withstand, and recover from the effects of climate variability and extreme weather events.

 

3. Significance of CRA for India

 

• India’s agrarian economy supports a fast-expanding population, intensifying the demand for stable and sustained agricultural output.
• However, nearly 51% of the country’s net cultivated land depends on rainfall and contributes about 40% of total food production, rendering it highly sensitive to climatic fluctuations.
• Traditional agricultural practices by themselves are increasingly inadequate to cope with the mounting challenges posed by climate change.
• In this context, climate-resilient agriculture provides a range of technological solutions that aim to boost farm productivity while safeguarding ecological sustainability.

 

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture:

 

• The National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), an initiative of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), has examined the effects of climate change on farming systems and rural livelihoods.
• Findings suggest that without suitable adaptation strategies, projected climate changes during 2020–2039 could lead to yield declines of about 3% in irrigated rice, 7–28% in rainfed rice, 3.2–5.3% in wheat, and 9–10% in maize, while soybean yields may increase by 2.5–5.5%.
• Moreover, climate-induced extreme events such as droughts adversely impact food and nutritional intake, deepen poverty levels, trigger migration from rural areas, escalate farmer indebtedness, and weaken the adaptive capacity of agricultural communities.

 

4. What are CRA Practices?

 

 

• Agroforestry: Agroforestry refers to the integration of trees with agricultural crops, which contributes to better soil quality, limits land degradation, and supports ecological diversity. By improving moisture retention in the soil and offering diversified sources of income and resources, this approach provides multiple advantages to farming communities.
• Soil and Water Conservation: Measures such as contour bunds, farm ponds, and check dams play a crucial role in conserving soil moisture, preventing soil loss, and enhancing groundwater recharge. These interventions enable farmers to better manage drought conditions and water shortages, challenges that are intensifying due to climate change.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Approaches like crop diversification, organic cultivation, and integrated pest management minimize reliance on chemical inputs while restoring soil health. In addition, these methods help lower greenhouse gas emissions and strengthen farmers’ livelihoods and food security.
• Livestock Management: Practices including stall-feeding and crop–livestock integration enhance the efficiency and resilience of livestock production systems. At the same time, they reduce stress on natural resources, particularly grazing lands, which are increasingly under pressure as climate impacts intensify

 

5. What are Government Initiatives?

 

• The Government of India is implementing the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), which serves as the overarching policy framework for climate-related interventions in the country.
• One of its key missions, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), focuses on strengthening the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate stress. Initially, NMSA was approved with three core components—Rainfed Area Development (RAD), On-Farm Water Management (OFWM), and Soil Health Management (SHM).
• Over time, additional initiatives were introduced, including the Soil Health Card Scheme (SHC), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Mission Organic Value Chain Development for the North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER), and the Per Drop More Crop programme. Further, the restructured National Bamboo Mission (NBM) was launched in April 2018 to promote sustainable land use and livelihoods.
• In the research domain, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated a flagship network programme titled National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) in 2011 to advance climate-adaptive farming practices.
• This multi-sectoral and multi-location initiative addresses climate variability while catering to the diverse needs of stakeholders across different agro-climatic regions. Its major pillars include research, field-level demonstrations, and capacity building, along with the preparation of policy inputs on agriculture–climate linkages.
• Key achievements under ICAR’s climate resilience efforts include the development of 1,888 climate-resilient crop varieties and the preparation of District Agriculture Contingency Plans (DACPs) for 650 districts.
• To shield farmers—particularly small and marginal cultivators—from climate-related risks, the Government launched the yield-based Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) alongside the Restructured Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS) from the Kharif season of 2016.
• These schemes aim to ensure income stability and promote sustainable agricultural production by offering financial assistance to farmers affected by crop losses due to natural calamities and adverse weather conditions.

 

 

6.  India's Stand as of today

 

• In 2011, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated a flagship network programme titled National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA). To strengthen farmers’ capacity to cope with climate variability, the project has promoted and demonstrated location-specific climate-adaptive technologies across 448 climate-resilient villages.
• These interventions include practices such as the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), aerobic rice cultivation, direct-seeded rice, zero-tillage wheat, adoption of crop varieties resistant to extreme climatic stresses, and in-situ management of rice residues.
• Complementing these efforts, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been designed to improve farm productivity, particularly in rain-dependent regions, by emphasising integrated farming systems, efficient water management, soil health enhancement, and the coordinated use of resource-conserving practices.
• In recent years, the BioE3 policy has further recognised climate-resilient agriculture as a priority area for advancing biotechnology-driven solutions, many of which have already reached the commercial stage.
• A number of private sector firms now provide bio-inputs that enhance soil quality and lower reliance on chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
• At the same time, India’s digital agriculture ecosystem is rapidly expanding, with agritech startups delivering AI-based advisory services, precision irrigation systems, crop health surveillance, and yield forecasting tools to support climate-smart farming.

 

 

7. Way Forward

 

 

India encounters multiple constraints in expanding climate-resilient agriculture, particularly the limited uptake among small and marginal farmers due to challenges related to accessibility, awareness, and affordability. In addition, variations in the quality of biofertilisers and biopesticides have weakened farmer confidence in biological inputs. The diffusion of climate-resilient seed varieties has also been gradual, while advanced approaches such as gene-editing technologies are still at a nascent stage and unevenly adopted across States. Moreover, the digital divide restricts the effective use of precision farming tools and AI-driven advisory systems. These issues are further intensified by declining soil health, increasing water stress, and rapidly intensifying climate variability, which may surpass the pace of existing adaptation measures. Inadequate coordination across policies and institutions also poses a risk to the timely scaling of CRA initiatives.

 

 

For Prelims: Climate Resilient Agriculture, National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC),  Soil Health Card Scheme (SHC) For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology

 

Previous Year Questions   1. In the context of India’s preparation for Climate -Smart Agriculture, consider the following statements:(2021) The ‘Climate-Smart Village’ approach in India is a part of a project led by the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), an international research programme. The project of CCAFS is carried out under Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) headquartered in France. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India is one of the CGIAR’s research centres. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) 2. With reference to the ‘Global Alliance for ClimateSmart Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2018) GACSA is an outcome of the Climate Summit held in Paris in 2015. Membership of GACSA does not create any binding obligations. India was instrumental in the creation of GACSA. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 3 only  (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (b)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

CONSUMER RIGHTS

 

 

1. Context

 

Every year, National Consumer Rights Day is observed on 24th December to raise awareness about consumer rights and promote fair trade practices. In this context, let’s know about the history of this day and consumer rights in detail.

 

 

2. National Consumer Rights Day

 

• National Consumer Rights Day in India marks the coming into force of the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, which received the President’s assent on 24 December 1986. In recognition of this milestone, 24 December is observed every year as National Consumer Day.

• This historic law was enacted to protect the rights of consumers, establish an effective system for resolving complaints related to goods and services, and guarantee fair practices and access to justice in the marketplace.

 

3. Consumer Protection Act, 2019

 

• The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 superseded the Consumer Protection Act, 1986. It identifies offences such as the supply of incorrect or deceptive information about the quality or quantity of goods or services and the publication of misleading advertisements. The Act also lays down measures to be taken when goods or services are found to be unsafe, hazardous, or harmful.

• Section 2(28) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 explains a “misleading advertisement” as one relating to any product or service that:

  • (i) presents an untrue or incorrect description of the product or service; or

  • (ii) offers a false assurance or is likely to deceive consumers regarding the nature, composition, quantity, or quality of the product or service; or

  • (iii) communicates an implied claim which, if expressly stated by the manufacturer, seller, or service provider, would amount to an unfair trade practice; or

  • (iv) intentionally withholds material information.

• Section 21 of the Act outlines the enforcement powers of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) against deceptive advertising. If, after inquiry, the CCPA concludes that an advertisement is false or misleading and prejudicial to consumer interests or violates consumer rights, it may direct the trader, manufacturer, advertiser, publisher, or endorser to withdraw or suitably alter the advertisement within a specified timeframe.

• The CCPA is empowered to levy a fine of up to ₹10 lakh and impose imprisonment up to two years on manufacturers or endorsers responsible for misleading advertisements. For repeated violations, the penalty may increase to ₹50 lakh, along with imprisonment up to five years. Additionally, the authority can prohibit endorsers from promoting any goods or services for up to one year, which may extend to three years for subsequent breaches of the Act.

 

 

4.  Government Guidelines on Misleading Ads

 

• In November last year, the Union government issued fresh norms to curb deceptive advertising by coaching institutes, barring exaggerated or false assurances such as “100% selection” or “guaranteed employment”. These rules were framed by the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) following a surge in complaints received through the National Consumer Helpline.

• As per the new framework, coaching institutions are barred from making misleading statements about the nature and length of courses, qualifications of faculty, fee details and refund terms, success rates and rankings in examinations, as well as promises of assured jobs or salary hikes.

• The guidelines clarify that the term “coaching” covers educational assistance, academic guidance, structured study programmes and tuition, while excluding counselling services, sports training, and creative or artistic pursuits.

• Coaching centres are not permitted to use the names, images, or endorsements of successful candidates unless explicit written permission is obtained after their selection. They are also required to clearly display disclaimers and fully disclose key course-related information in their advertisements.

 

 

5. Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

 

 

• The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) functions as India’s highest consumer regulatory body. It was constituted under Section 10(1) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and started functioning on 24 July 2020.

• The Authority is responsible for overseeing violations of consumer rights, addressing unfair trade practices, and taking action against false or deceptive advertisements that harm the collective interests of consumers and the wider public.

• Powers and Functions of the CCPA include:

  (i) Safeguarding, advancing, and enforcing consumer rights as a collective and preventing their infringement under the Act;

  (ii) Curbing unfair trade practices and ensuring that individuals or entities do not indulge in such practices;

  (iii) Preventing the circulation of misleading or false advertisements for goods or services that violate the Act or related rules and regulations;

  (iv) Ensuring accountability of all parties involved in publishing deceptive advertisements;

  (v) Initiating complaints before Consumer Commissions and examining issues connected to the protection of consumer rights;

  (vi) Advising on the adoption of international agreements and standards relating to consumer protection;

  (vii) Encouraging consumer awareness and supporting research in the area of consumer rights;

  (viii) Providing guidance to Central and State governments and their departments on policies and measures aimed at consumer welfare.

 

 

6. Way Forward

 

Consumer rights form the backbone of a fair, transparent, and accountable market economy. With the enactment of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and the establishment of the Central Consumer Protection Authority, India has significantly strengthened its institutional and legal framework to protect consumers against unfair trade practices and misleading advertisements. These measures not only empower consumers with enforceable rights and effective grievance redressal mechanisms but also promote ethical business conduct. As markets become more complex and digitalised, continuous awareness, strict enforcement, and responsive regulation are essential to ensure that consumer welfare remains central to economic growth and good governance

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance For Mains: General Studies II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Which of the following statements about the 'Consumer Protection Act 2019' is not true? (UGC NET 2020) A.It has widened the definition of consumer B.It provides for E-filing of complaints C.It establishes Central Consumer Protection Authority D.It ignores mediation as an alternate disputes resolution mechanism Answer (D)

Source: Indanexpress

 

NATIONAL CRITICAL MINERAL MISSION(NCMM)

 

 

1. Context

 

As the curtain rises on 2026, the global landscape resembles less a cohesive portrait gallery of national foreign policies and more a jagged mosaic of competing interests protruding into one another. The stage reveals the world at an inflection point: Geopolitical turbulence, AI- and tariff-driven economic uncertainty, and climate urgency are all reshaping the global order. 

 

2. What is the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM)?

 

• The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) is a strategic initiative by the Government of India aimed at securing the nation's access to essential minerals that are crucial for modern technologies and industrial development.
• These minerals, often referred to as "critical minerals," include lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare earth elements, and others that play a vital role in sectors such as renewable energy, electronics, electric mobility, defense, and telecommunications.
• India’s growing push towards clean energy, electric vehicles, and advanced manufacturing has significantly increased the demand for these minerals. However, many of these resources are either scarce within India or are largely controlled by a few countries, making their supply highly vulnerable to geopolitical and market uncertainties.
• Recognizing this challenge, the NCMM has been envisioned to ensure a reliable, long-term, and secure supply chain for critical minerals.
• Under this mission, India seeks to undertake comprehensive mapping and exploration of its own geological resources to identify potential domestic sources of critical minerals.
• At the same time, the mission aims to foster international partnerships and joint ventures in mineral-rich countries to access these essential resources.
• In addition to exploration and acquisition, the NCMM focuses on building the capacity for value addition, processing, and recycling of critical minerals within the country, thereby reducing dependence on imports and enhancing self-reliance.
• The mission also emphasizes sustainability and environmental responsibility in mineral extraction and processing. It integrates research and innovation to develop efficient technologies for extraction, separation, and recycling of these minerals.
• Overall, the National Critical Mineral Mission reflects India’s strategic vision to secure its mineral resources in line with its developmental goals, green transition agenda, and national security interests

 

3. Significance of National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM)

 

• The significance of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) lies in its strategic role in safeguarding India's economic growth, technological advancement, and national security in an increasingly resource-competitive world.
• As India transitions toward clean energy, digital infrastructure, and advanced manufacturing, the demand for critical minerals—such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, and rare earth elements—is expected to surge.
• These minerals are essential components in electric vehicle batteries, solar panels, wind turbines, electronics, and defense systems. However, India's domestic availability of many of these minerals is either limited or unexplored, and their global supply chains are often concentrated in a few countries, making India vulnerable to external shocks and supply disruptions.
• The NCMM is significant because it addresses this vulnerability by adopting a multi-pronged approach. It encourages extensive exploration and development of domestic mineral resources, reduces overdependence on imports, and ensures strategic tie-ups with resource-rich countries to secure stable and diversified supply chains.
• This is particularly important for ensuring energy security and industrial competitiveness in the long term.
• Moreover, by promoting research, innovation, and recycling of critical minerals, the mission supports the development of indigenous capabilities in mineral processing and value addition.
• This aligns with the broader goals of "Aatmanirbhar Bharat" (self-reliant India) and strengthens India's position in global supply chains, especially in emerging technologies.
• From a geopolitical perspective, the NCMM enhances India's strategic autonomy by reducing dependence on any single country for crucial inputs. Environmentally, it also promotes sustainable mining practices and efficient resource utilization, ensuring that the push for critical minerals does not come at the cost of ecological damage.
• In essence, the National Critical Mineral Mission is a foundational step in preparing India for the demands of the 21st-century economy—securing essential raw materials, supporting innovation and green technologies, and reinforcing national resilience in a rapidly changing global landscape

 

4. What are critical minerals?

 

• Critical minerals are naturally occurring elements or minerals that are essential for the functioning of modern technologies, national defense, clean energy systems, and advanced manufacturing, but which also face a high risk of supply disruption. Their "criticality" arises from two main factors: their economic importance and the vulnerability of their supply chains.
• These minerals are vital for a wide range of applications—from renewable energy technologies like solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries, to electronic devices, telecommunications, aerospace, and defense equipment.
• For instance, lithium, cobalt, and nickel are key components of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs), while rare earth elements like neodymium and dysprosium are used in permanent magnets for wind turbines and electronics.
• What makes these minerals "critical" is not just their usage, but the challenges associated with their availability. Many critical minerals are geographically concentrated in a few countries—such as China, the Democratic Republic of Congo, or Australia—making other countries dependent on imports and vulnerable to geopolitical risks, trade restrictions, or supply shocks.
• In the Indian context, the government has identified several minerals as critical, including lithium, cobalt, graphite, nickel, rare earth elements, and tantalum, among others. These are essential for India's ambitions in renewable energy, electric mobility, and high-tech industries.
• Thus, critical minerals are at the heart of the 21st-century global economy, and their secure and sustainable supply is increasingly viewed as a matter of national interest and strategic importance

 

5. Components of NCMM

 

• Increasing Domestic Critical Minerals Production

• Acquisition of Critical Mineral Assets Abroad

• Recycling of Critical Minerals

• Trade and Markets for Critical Minerals

• Scientific Research and Technological Advancement

• Human Resource Development

• Developing Effective Funding, Financing, and Fiscal Incentives

 

6. Usage of Critical minerals

 

Critical minerals play a crucial role in supporting clean energy technologies and various industrial applications. Their relevance spans multiple sectors:

• Solar Energy
  Elements such as silicon, tellurium, indium, and gallium are essential for manufacturing photovoltaic (PV) cells, which are the core components of solar panels. India's existing solar power capacity of 64 GW significantly relies on these materials.

• Wind Energy
  Rare earth elements, particularly neodymium and dysprosium, are vital for producing permanent magnets used in wind turbines. With India setting a target to boost its wind energy capacity from the current 42 GW to 140 GW by 2030, a dependable supply of these minerals is critical.

• Electric Vehicles (EVs)
  Key minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel are integral to the production of lithium-ion batteries, which power electric vehicles. India’s National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) envisions the adoption of 6 to 7 million EVs by 2024, further intensifying the demand for these critical materials.

• Energy Storage
  Advanced energy storage systems, particularly those based on lithium-ion technology, require substantial amounts of lithium, nickel, and cobalt to function effectively.

 

 

7. Way Forward

 

India aims to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 (from 2005 levels), achieve 50% of its electric power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030, and reach net-zero emissions by 2070. To achieve these climate goals, the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) plays a vital role by building a resilient and self-reliant ecosystem for critical minerals. The mission focuses on boosting domestic production, encouraging private sector participation, strengthening international partnerships, and streamlining regulations to ensure a steady supply of minerals essential for clean energy technologies

 

For Prelims: National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM), Critical Minerals,  Usage of Critical minerals   For Mains: GS III - Environment & Ecology

 

 

 

For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions,  cleaner energy,  lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,    For Mains:  1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010) Mineral                         90%Natural sources in 1. Copper                       Jharkhand 2. Nickel                        Orissa 3. Tungsten                    Kerala Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?   A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 only             C. 1 and 3 only            D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012) 1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only              B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only          D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022) 1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India. 2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks. 3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas. 4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3            B. 3 and 4 only           C. 1 and 2 only          D. 1, 2 and 4   Answer: A   4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)  A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year. B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels. C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place. D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.   Answer: A   5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018) Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy. A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I) B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I) C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true   Answer: C   6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017) A.  Lead Acid        B. Manganese        C. Lithium ion        D. Nickel metal hydride   Answer: C   7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)  A. gold, nickel and palladium B. gold, cobalt and palladium C. gold, titanium and platinum D. gold, magnesium and palladium   Answer: A   8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)  1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity. 2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far. 3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency. 4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only          B. 3 and 4 only         C.  1, 2 and 4 only          D.  1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: C   9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)   A. isotopes           B.  isomers             C. isotones           D. allotropes   Answer: D   10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only        C.  3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: D   11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013) 1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 and 3 only           B. 2, 4 and 5 only          C. 1, 3 and 5 only           D.  1, 2, 3, 4 and 5   Answer: C   12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017) 1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature. 2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. 3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation. Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 only         B.  2 and 3 only          C.  1 and 3 only             D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)  1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium 3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor 5. Mercury 6. Lead 7. Plutonium Select the correct answer using the codes given below.  A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only           B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only          C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only               D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7   Answer: B   14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021) A. 1851             B. 1951            C. 1871              D. 1931   Answer: A

 

Source: PIB

 

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)

 

 

 

1. Context: 

 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has notified new regulations to address caste-based discrimination in higher education institutions across the country. The new rules mandate the setting up of equity committees on campuses and specify punishments, which can range from being debarred from offering degrees or programmes, for non-compliance.

 

2. University Grants Commission (UGC)

 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory body in India that was established to oversee and maintain the standards of higher education. It was formed in 1956 under the University Grants Commission Act of 1956 and operates under the Ministry of Education, Government of India

 

The primary functions of the UGC include:

1. Allocating funds to universities and colleges.
2. Formulating and implementing academic standards for higher education institutions.
3. Monitoring and maintaining the quality of teaching, research, and examinations in universities.
4. Providing guidance and coordination among universities and colleges in the country.
5. Supporting and promoting innovations and improvements in the education system

 

3. Appointment, Tenure, Eligibility

 

University Grants Commission (UGC) Appointment, Tenure, and Eligibility

Position	Appointment Method	Tenure	Minimum Eligibility
Chairperson	Appointed by the President of India	5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review)	Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges.
Member	Appointed by the President of India	5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review)	Renowned scholar/expert with: * Proven track record in teaching/research/administration in relevant field. * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor/equivalent in a University/College/Institute of national importance. * Demonstrated commitment to higher education development.
Vice-Chancellor (University)	Appointed by Executive Council of the University	5 years, extendable for another 5 years	Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in the sphere of higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges.
Dean (Faculty) or Director (School/Institute)	Appointed by Executive Council of the University/Governing Council of the Institute	5 years, extendable for another 5 years	Eminent scholar with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in relevant field. * Exceptional research record and contributions to the discipline. * Strong administrative and leadership skills.
Professor	Through Selection Committee constituted by the University	Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review	Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Proven track record of research publications in peer-reviewed journals. * Significant contribution to the discipline. * Experience in research supervision.
Associate Professor	Through Selection Committee constituted by the University	Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review	Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Good academic record and publications. * Minimum 8 years of teaching/research experience in relevant field.
Assistant Professor	Through Selection Committee constituted by the University	Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review	Master's degree with at least 55% marks and Ph.D. in relevant/allied/cognate discipline OR Master's degree with NET/SLET/SET qualification.

 

 

4. University Grants Commission - Statutory Provisions

 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) operates under statutory provisions outlined primarily in the University Grants Commission Act, 1956. Here are some of the key statutory provisions governing the UGC:

• University Grants Commission Act, 1956: This is the primary legislation that established the UGC. It defines the roles, functions, powers, and responsibilities of the Commission. It also outlines the composition of the UGC, appointment procedures, and its authority to allocate funds to universities and colleges.

• UGC (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2016: These regulations provide guidelines for institutions seeking the status of "Deemed to be University." They specify the criteria, application process, and conditions for granting this status.

• UGC (Minimum Standards of Instruction for the Grant of the First Degree through Non-formal/Distance Education) Regulations, 2017: These regulations specify the minimum standards for offering programs through distance education mode, ensuring quality education delivery.

• UGC (Open and Distance Learning) Regulations, 2017: These regulations govern the standards and norms for open and distance learning programs offered by universities and institutions in India.

• UGC (Establishment and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003: These regulations outline the norms and standards for the establishment and functioning of private universities, ensuring quality education.

• UGC (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal of Sexual Harassment of Women Employees and Students in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2015: These regulations mandate higher educational institutions to establish mechanisms for preventing and addressing sexual harassment.

• UGC (Promotion of Equity in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2012: These regulations aim to promote equity in higher education, focusing on providing opportunities to disadvantaged sections of society.

5. University Grants Commission - Powers and Functions

 

 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India is entrusted with several powers and functions aimed at promoting and regulating higher education in the country.

Some of its key powers and functions include:

• UGC allocates funds to universities and colleges for their development, improvement, and maintenance
• Provides financial assistance to encourage and support research activities in various academic disciplines
• UGC establishes and maintains academic standards in higher education to ensure quality across universities and colleges
• Develops frameworks and guidelines for curriculum development in different academic programs
• UGC recognizes universities in India and provides approval for the establishment of new universities
• Monitors the quality of education, teaching, research, and examinations in universities to ensure adherence to set standards
• UGC promotes and supports research activities by providing grants, fellowships, and scholarships to students and faculty members
• Facilitates coordination and cooperation among universities and other higher educational institutions
• Advises the Central and State governments on matters related to higher education policies, regulations, and development
• Provides guidance, assistance, and recommendations to universities for enhancing their academic and research standards
• Conducts assessments and accredits higher education institutions to ensure and improve quality
• Undertakes periodic reviews and assessments to maintain and enhance the quality of education
• Implements programs and initiatives to promote access to higher education for underprivileged and marginalized sections of society
• Develops and revises regulations and guidelines governing various aspects of higher education, such as distance education, deemed universities, private universities, etc
• Collects, analyzes, and maintains data related to higher education for policy formulation and decision-making purposes

 

6.Institutions which grant Degree

 

 

In India, degrees are granted by various types of institutions that are recognized and authorized to award them.

These institutions include:

• Central Universities: Established by an Act of Parliament and are under the purview of the central government.
• State Universities: Established by state governments within their respective states.
• Deemed Universities: Granted the status of "Deemed to be University" by the University Grants Commission (UGC)
• Many colleges are affiliated with universities and offer undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The degrees awarded by these colleges are conferred by the affiliated university
• Some colleges have been granted autonomy by the University Grants Commission or the respective university. These colleges have the authority to design their curriculum and conduct examinations, and they award degrees on their own
• Certain institutes, like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and others designated as Institutes of National Importance, have the authority to award degrees
• Institutions like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and others recognized by the Distance Education Bureau (DEB) offer distance education programs and award degrees

These institutions adhere to the guidelines and regulations set by regulatory bodies like the University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Bar Council of India (BCI), Medical Council of India (MCI), and others to maintain the quality and standards of education while awarding degrees in their respective fields of expertise

 

7. Challenges regarding the University Grants Commission

 

The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India, despite its significant role in regulating and fostering higher education, faces several challenges:

Insufficient Funding: The allocated funds might not always meet the growing needs of universities and colleges, impacting infrastructure development, research, and educational quality

Ensuring Quality: Maintaining and assuring consistent quality across a diverse range of institutions, especially in rapidly evolving fields, can be challenging.

Accreditation Processes: Some institutions struggle to meet accreditation criteria, impacting their ability to offer recognized degrees

Rapid Changes in Education: Keeping regulations updated and aligned with the evolving educational landscape, including emerging technologies and global standards, poses a challenge

Global Rankings: Enhancing the global competitiveness of Indian higher education institutions in terms of rankings and international collaborations is an ongoing challenge

Industry-Relevant Skills: Aligning educational programs with industry needs to enhance employability requires continuous curriculum updates and industry collaboration

 

8. University Grants Commission - Historical Background

The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India has a rich historical background that traces back to the pre-independence era and has evolved significantly over time:

Pre-Independence Era:

• 1920s-1940s: Before India gained independence, the idea of a body to oversee and promote higher education emerged. The need for such an institution was discussed during the 1920s and 1930s.

Post-Independence Formation:

• 1947: After India gained independence in 1947, discussions intensified regarding the establishment of a commission to oversee higher education and allocate funds to universities and colleges.
• 1950: The UGC was initially set up as an ad-hoc committee to oversee the allocation of grants to universities and colleges.
• 1956: The University Grants Commission Act was passed on December 28, 1956, establishing the UGC as a statutory body. This formalized its role in overseeing and promoting higher education.

Evolution and Functions:

• Early Years: Initially, the UGC focused on disbursing grants and fostering the development of universities and colleges.
• Expanding Role: Over time, the UGC's role expanded to encompass setting academic standards, promoting research, and advising the government on higher education policies.
• Regulatory Functions: It started playing a more regulatory role by formulating guidelines and regulations for various aspects of higher education.

Milestones and Amendments:

• 1960s-1970s: The UGC underwent amendments to accommodate changes in the higher education landscape and to enhance its effectiveness.
• Subsequent Decades: The UGC continued to evolve, adapting to the changing needs of higher education, introducing reforms, and addressing emerging challenges.

 9. Way forward

 

 Throughout its history, the UGC has adapted to the changing educational scenario in India, expanding its functions and responsibilities to meet the evolving needs of higher education. It remains a key institution in the Indian education system, contributing significantly to the development and enhancement of higher education across the country

 

Source: The Hindu