SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
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During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
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- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
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Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
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Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
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Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
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This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
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Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
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Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
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Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
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Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
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For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
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LINE OF ACTUAL CONTROL (LAC)
- The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the de facto boundary that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. Unlike a formally demarcated international border, it is not clearly marked on the ground or mutually agreed upon in precise terms by both countries. The concept of the LAC emerged after the 1962 India-China war, when hostilities ended without a final settlement of the border dispute.
- Stretching for about 3,488 kilometers, the LAC runs through three main sectors: the western sector in Ladakh, the middle sector covering parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and the eastern sector that spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
- Each side has its own perception of where the LAC lies, which often leads to overlapping claims and occasional standoffs between Indian and Chinese troops. The absence of a mutually recognized border has made this line one of the most sensitive and contested frontiers in the world.
- Over the years, both countries have signed various agreements to maintain peace and tranquillity along the LAC, emphasizing restraint and confidence-building measures. However, due to differing interpretations of the line, confrontations and incursions have continued to occur.
- The recent clashes, particularly in eastern Ladakh in 2020, highlighted the fragile nature of the arrangement and the pressing need for a clearer understanding between the two sides.
- Thus, the LAC represents more than just a boundary; it is a reflection of unresolved historical disputes and ongoing geopolitical tensions. While it serves as the working line that separates the territories under Indian and Chinese control, its ambiguous character keeps it at the center of India-China relations
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The eastern sector which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim,
The middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and the western sector in Ladakh
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- The alignment of the LAC in the eastern sector is along the 1914 McMahon Line, and there are minor disputes about the positions on the ground as per the principle of the high Himalayan watershed
- This pertains to India’s international boundary as well, but for certain areas such as Longju and Asaphila
- The line in the middle sector is the least controversial but for the precise alignment to be followed in the Barahoti plains.
- The major disagreements are in the western sector where the LAC emerged from two letters written by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai to PM Jawaharlal Nehru in 1959, after he had first mentioned such a ‘line’ in 1956.
- In his letter, Zhou said the LAC consisted of “the so-called McMahon Line in the east and the line up to which each side exercises actual control in the west”
- After the 1962 War, the Chinese claimed they had withdrawn to 20 km behind the LAC of November 1959
- During the Doklam crisis in 2017, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson urged India to abide by the “1959 LAC”
- India rejected the concept of LAC in both 1959 and 1962. Even during the war, Nehru was unequivocal: “There is no sense or meaning in the Chinese offer to withdraw twenty kilometres from what they call ‘line of actual control’
- LAC was discussed during Chinese Premier Li Peng’s 1991 visit to India, where PM P V Narasimha Rao and Li reached an understanding to maintain peace and tranquillity at the LAC.
- India formally accepted the concept of the LAC when Rao paid a return visit to Beijing in 1993 and the two sides signed the Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquillity at the LAC
- The reference to the LAC was unqualified to make it clear that it was not referring to the LAC of 1959 or 1962 but to the LAC at the time when the agreement was signed
- To reconcile the differences about some areas, the two countries agreed that the Joint Working Group on the border issue would take up the task of clarifying the alignment of the LAC
- The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement.
- The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground.
- The Line of Actual Control (LAC) between India and China and the Line of Control (LoC) between India and Pakistan are both contested frontiers, but they differ fundamentally in their origin, status, and legal recognition.
- The LAC is not an internationally agreed boundary; it is simply the line that separates the territories controlled by India and China after the 1962 war. It came into existence informally as the ground reality of troop positions after hostilities, and while both countries recognize its existence, they do not agree on its precise alignment.
- This makes the LAC fluid and ambiguous, often leading to different interpretations and military face-offs. It is essentially a de facto line, with no official international recognition or treaty-based acceptance.
- In contrast, the LoC is a formally delineated line that divides the territories of India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir. It originated from the ceasefire line drawn after the first India-Pakistan war of 1947–48, and was given its current name under the 1972 Simla Agreement.
- Unlike the LAC, the LoC is demarcated on maps, jointly surveyed, and broadly agreed upon by both sides, even though the underlying sovereignty dispute over Jammu and Kashmir remains unresolved.
- The LoC is under constant military monitoring, heavily fortified, and frequently the site of ceasefire violations, but it has legal standing as part of an international agreement.
- To put it simply, the LAC is undefined and disputed in interpretation, while the LoC is defined and agreed upon, though still contested in terms of territorial claims. The LAC reflects ambiguity and lack of settlement between India and China, whereas the LoC represents a ceasefire line formally negotiated between India and Pakistan
6. Way Forward
The two leaders met on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit here — this is Modi’s first visit to China in seven years. The two sides agreed on a “fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable resolution” of the border issue, and flagged the importance of a multipolar world, free trade and “role of their two economies to stabilise world trade
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For Prelims: LAC, LOC For Mains: 1.What is this ‘line of control’? Is this the line China have created by aggression. Comment 2.What we know about the clash between Indian and Chinese soldiers in Arunachal Pradesh |
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Previous Year Questions 1.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020) A.India and Pakistan B.India and Afghanistan C.India and Nepal D.India and China Answer (D) 2.LAC (Line of Actual Control) is an effective border between India and ______. (SSC CHSL 2020) A.Pakistan B.Bhutan C.Sri Lanka D.China Answer (D) |
MINERALS SECURITY PARTNERSHIP (MSP)
The partnership includes major economies and resource-rich nations, typically led by countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and Japan, among others. These nations collaborate to identify and develop alternative sources of critical minerals and secure reliable supply chains.
Importance of Critical Minerals:
Critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, rare earth elements, and graphite are vital for:
- Clean Energy Transition: Supporting technologies like wind turbines, solar panels, and batteries.
- Defense and Aerospace: Enabling advanced weaponry, satellites, and aviation systems.
- Technological Advancements: Powering semiconductors, smartphones, and electric vehicles
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In June 2023, India became part of the MSP, a US-led alliance of 14 countries focused on fostering public and private investments to enhance global supply chains for critical minerals. A joint statement released by India and the US on June 23, 2023, highlighted their shared commitment to ensuring adequate supplies of essential critical minerals for their respective markets. It also emphasized accelerating bilateral efforts to establish resilient supply chains, marking India's formal entry into the partnership.
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The MSP member countries include Australia, Canada, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the European Union, represented by the European Commission.
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The partnership focuses on minerals such as cobalt, nickel, lithium, and the 17 rare earth elements. Its objective is to create an alternative to China's dominance in rare earth processing and its acquisition of cobalt mines in Africa.
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Current collaborative efforts within the MSP involve establishing a forum for expertise sharing, building a robust battery material supply chain, and working on the development of a minerals processing facility in South America.
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The MSP gained further momentum with the creation of the MSFN in September, which comes amid a growing reliance on countries like China for critical resources, particularly rare earth minerals.
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As part of the new partnership, member nations acknowledged that addressing the rising global demand for critical minerals to facilitate the clean energy transition requires collective efforts beyond the capacity of any single institution. Public and private sectors within member countries must collaborate to mobilize investments in both new and existing markets in this field.
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Speaking at the United Nations General Assembly in New York, US Undersecretary of State Jose W. Fernandez remarked, “The energy transition is at risk. We need increased production capacity for critical minerals, as many supply chains are concentrated in one or two countries and lack resilience.”
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The 17 rare earth elements (REEs) comprise the 15 Lanthanides (atomic numbers 57 to 71, starting with Lanthanum) along with Scandium (atomic number 21) and Yttrium (atomic number 39). These elements are categorized into two groups: light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs).
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REEs, though used in small amounts, are critical components in over 200 consumer products, such as mobile phones, computer hard drives, electric and hybrid vehicles, semiconductors, flat-screen TVs, monitors, and advanced electronics. India has been a late entrant in the lithium value chain, coinciding with projections of a significant transformation in the electric vehicle (EV) sector.
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India has some REEs, including Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium, Praseodymium, and Samarium. However, heavy rare earth elements like Dysprosium, Terbium, and Europium are not present in extractable quantities within Indian deposits. As a result, India depends on imports from countries like China, which dominates the global REE market with an estimated 70% share of global production
Critical minerals are essential for the manufacturing of advanced technologies, including renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, and high-end electronics. These minerals, such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements, play a vital role in supporting India's transition to a low-carbon economy and enhancing its industrial and technological capabilities.
India's Import Reliance
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Dependence on Key Suppliers:
India heavily depends on imports for critical minerals, with China being a dominant supplier, especially for rare earth elements (REEs). China's extensive processing infrastructure and global mining investments make it a critical player in this sector. -
Limited Domestic Availability:
While India possesses some rare earth elements like lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, and praseodymium, others, particularly heavy rare earth elements such as dysprosium and terbium, are either unavailable or found in non-extractable quantities within the country. -
Strategic Vulnerability:
Over-reliance on imports exposes India to supply chain disruptions, geopolitical risks, and market volatility, threatening its clean energy and technological goals
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For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions, cleaner energy, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,
For Mains:
1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010)
Mineral 90%Natural sources in
1. Copper Jharkhand
2. Nickel Orissa
3. Tungsten Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022)
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 1, 2 and 4
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018)
Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy.
A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I)
C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false
D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true
Answer: C
6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017)
A. Lead Acid B. Manganese C. Lithium ion D. Nickel metal hydride
Answer: C
7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)
A. gold, nickel and palladium
B. gold, cobalt and palladium
C. gold, titanium and platinum
D. gold, magnesium and palladium
Answer: A
8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)
A. isotopes B. isomers C. isotones D. allotropes
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013)
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 4 and 5 only C. 1, 3 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: B
14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021)
A. 1851 B. 1951 C. 1871 D. 1931
Answer: A
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INCOME INEQUALITY
- Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, rights, and privileges among individuals or groups within a society or between different societies.
- It can manifest in various forms, such as economic inequality (disparities in income, wealth, and access to resources), social inequality (unequal treatment based on factors like race, gender, ethnicity, religion, or disability), and political inequality (unequal access to political power and decision-making processes).
- Inequality can have significant social, economic, and political implications. It can lead to social unrest, hinder economic growth, limit opportunities for social mobility, and perpetuate cycles of poverty and exclusion.
- Addressing inequality often involves policies and actions aimed at promoting equal opportunities, reducing disparities, and ensuring fairness and justice in various aspects of society.
3. About Income Inequality
- Income inequality refers to the unequal distribution of income among individuals or households within a society or geographic area.
- It is often measured using statistical tools such as the Gini coefficient, which quantifies the extent of income inequality within a population.
- Income inequality can manifest in different ways, including variations in wages, salaries, bonuses, investment income, and other sources of earnings.
- Key factors contributing to income inequality include differences in education, skills, employment opportunities, discrimination, technological advancements, globalization, tax policies, and social welfare programs.
- These factors can create disparities in income levels between different socioeconomic groups, such as high-income earners, middle-income earners, and low-income earners.
- Income inequality can have wide-ranging social and economic consequences. It can lead to disparities in living standards, access to education and healthcare, social mobility, and overall quality of life.
- Excessive income inequality may also contribute to social tensions, political instability, and reduced economic growth potential.
- Governments, policymakers, and organizations often implement various strategies to address income inequality, such as progressive taxation, minimum wage laws, social safety nets, education and training programs, labour market reforms, and initiatives to promote inclusive economic growth.
- These efforts aim to create a more equitable distribution of income and improve overall societal well-being.
4. How to measure income inequality?
Income inequality can be measured using several statistical methods and indices.
- Gini Coefficient: The Gini coefficient is a widely used measure of income inequality. It ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income) and 1 represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income). A higher Gini coefficient indicates greater income inequality. The Gini coefficient is calculated based on the Lorenz curve, which plots the cumulative income distribution against the cumulative population.
- Income Quintile Ratios: This measure compares the income of households in the highest income quintile (top 20%) to the income of households in the lowest income quintile (bottom 20%). A higher ratio indicates greater income inequality between the top and bottom income groups.
- Palma Ratio: The Palma ratio compares the income share of the top 10% of the population to the income share of the bottom 40%. It focuses on the relative income concentration at the top and bottom ends of the income distribution.
- Theil Index: The Theil index is another measure of income inequality that considers both within-group inequality and between-group inequality. It is based on the concept of entropy from information theory and can be decomposed into two components: the inequality within groups and the inequality between groups.
- Percentile Ratios: Percentile ratios compare the income of households at different percentiles of the income distribution. For example, the ratio of the 90th percentile income to the 10th percentile income can provide insights into the income gap between higher and lower earners.
- Decomposition Analysis: This method breaks down income inequality into various components, such as differences in earnings, capital income, government transfers, and taxes. It helps identify the factors contributing to income inequality within a population.
5. India’s inequality trends
India's inequality trends are concerning, with a widening gap between rich and poor.
Rising Inequality
- Decades of decline in inequality post-independence reversed in the 1980s.
- Since then, the share of income and wealth going to the top 1% has been steadily increasing, reaching record highs in recent years.
- The World Inequality Lab reports that by 2022-23, the top 1% held a staggering 22.6% of national income, among the highest in the world.
Extreme Concentration
- The wealthiest 10% of the population controls a massive portion of the national wealth, estimated at around 77%.
- This means the bottom 50% of the population struggles to scrape together just a tiny fraction (around 4%) of the wealth.
Limited Mobility
- While some economic mobility exists, many who escape poverty remain vulnerable.
- Intergenerational mobility, meaning the ability of children to achieve a higher economic status than their parents, is also low, suggesting limited opportunities for many.
These trends have serious implications for social justice, economic stability, and overall development.
6. The causes of rising inequality in India
The rising inequality in India can be attributed to a combination of economic, social, and policy factors.
- Economic Reforms and Globalization: The economic reforms initiated in the early 1990s, which opened up the Indian economy to globalization and liberalization, led to rapid economic growth. However, this growth was not evenly distributed across sectors and regions, resulting in widening income gaps between different segments of society.
- Urban-Rural Divide: There exists a significant disparity between urban and rural areas in terms of income, opportunities, infrastructure, and access to basic services. Urban areas, especially metropolitan cities and industrial hubs tend to attract more investment and offer higher-paying jobs, leading to a widening urban-rural income gap.
- Sectoral Disparities: Certain sectors of the economy, such as information technology, finance, and services, have experienced robust growth and generated wealth for a relatively small segment of the population, contributing to income concentration. Meanwhile, sectors like agriculture, which employ a large portion of the workforce, have faced challenges such as low productivity, inadequate infrastructure, and income volatility.
- Education and Skills Gap: Disparities in education and skills development contribute to income inequality. Individuals with higher levels of education, specialized skills, and access to quality education opportunities are more likely to secure well-paying jobs and participate in sectors with higher growth prospects.
- Gender Inequality: Gender disparities in education, employment, and wages contribute significantly to income inequality. Women often face barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities, receive lower wages for similar work compared to men, and are underrepresented in leadership positions and high-paying sectors.
- Informal Economy: A significant portion of India's workforce is engaged in the informal economy, which includes activities such as agriculture, small-scale enterprises, and informal labour. Informal workers often lack job security, social protection, and access to formal financial services, leading to income instability and vulnerability.
- Wealth Concentration and Corruption: The concentration of wealth among a small elite, including wealthy individuals, corporate entities, and influential groups, contributes to income inequality. Issues such as corruption, crony capitalism, and rent-seeking behaviour can exacerbate wealth disparities and hinder equitable economic opportunities for all segments of society.
- Social and Caste Factors: India's social structure, including caste-based discrimination and inequalities, also plays a role in income disparities. Historically marginalized communities, such as Scheduled Castes (Dalits) and Scheduled Tribes (Adivasis), often face socio-economic barriers that limit their access to education, employment, and resources.
7. The poor and rich gap in India
The wealth gap between rich and poor in India is vast and has been growing wider in recent years.
Wealth Concentration
- The richest 1% of the population controls a staggering share of the wealth, estimated to be around 40%.
- In contrast, the bottom 50% of the population owns a minuscule portion, around 3% of the total wealth.
Income Distribution
- The top 10% of earners corner a significant share of the national income, around 77%.
- This means a large portion of the population struggles to make ends meet with a much smaller share.
- Reports suggest the top 1% hold a concerningly high share of income, reaching over 22% in recent years.
8. Inclusive growth
- Inclusive growth refers to a type of economic development that aims to ensure that the benefits of growth and prosperity are widely shared across different segments of society, particularly targeting marginalized and vulnerable groups.
- It emphasizes creating opportunities for all individuals to participate in and benefit from economic progress, regardless of their background, social status, or location.
- Inclusive growth goes beyond mere economic expansion and focuses on reducing disparities, promoting social inclusion, and enhancing overall well-being and quality of life for everyone.
The steps are taken to Promote inclusive growth in India
Promoting inclusive growth in India requires a comprehensive approach involving various policies, programs, and initiatives across different sectors.
- Social Welfare Programs: The Indian government has implemented several social welfare programs aimed at providing support and assistance to vulnerable and marginalized populations. Examples include the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) for rural employment generation, the National Food Security Act for food distribution to low-income households, and various housing schemes for the homeless and economically weaker sections.
- Financial Inclusion: Initiatives such as the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) have been launched to promote financial inclusion by providing access to banking services, savings accounts, insurance, and credit facilities to individuals in rural and urban areas who were previously excluded from the formal financial system.
- Education and Skill Development: Programs like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and the Skill India initiative aim to improve access to quality education and vocational training, especially for disadvantaged groups and rural communities. These initiatives focus on enhancing employability and fostering entrepreneurship among youth and adults.
- Healthcare Reforms: The government has prioritized healthcare reforms to improve access to affordable and quality healthcare services, especially in rural and underserved areas. Initiatives such as the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) provide health insurance coverage to economically vulnerable families for hospitalization expenses.
- Rural Development: Schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) aim to improve rural connectivity by constructing and upgrading roads, bridges, and transport infrastructure, which facilitates access to markets, education, healthcare, and employment opportunities in rural areas.
- Affordable Housing: The government has launched schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) to promote affordable housing for economically weaker sections, lower-income groups, and rural households. These initiatives aim to address housing shortages and improve living conditions for marginalized communities.
- Entrepreneurship and Small Business Support: Programs such as Startup India and the Stand-Up India scheme focus on promoting entrepreneurship among women, SC/ST (Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes) entrepreneurs, and individuals from backward regions by providing financial assistance, mentorship, training, and market access.
- Digital Inclusion: Initiatives like Digital India aim to bridge the digital divide by promoting digital literacy, expanding internet connectivity, and leveraging technology for delivering government services, financial transactions, education, healthcare, and e-commerce opportunities to remote and rural areas.
- Environmental Sustainability: Efforts are being made to integrate environmental sustainability into development policies and practices, including renewable energy initiatives, sustainable agriculture practices, conservation of natural resources, and climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies.
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For Prelims: inequality, Income inequality, inclusive growth
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the evidence of rising income inequality in India. What are the major factors contributing to this trend? Discuss the social and economic implications of such inequality. (250 words)
2. What are the challenges faced in promoting inclusive growth in India? Suggest a multi-pronged strategy to address these challenges and achieve equitable development. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (CRA)
- Climate-resilient agriculture relies on a combination of biotechnological innovations and allied technologies to shape sustainable farming methods and lower reliance on chemical-based inputs, without compromising yields.
- Key approaches include the use of biofertilizers, biopesticides, and assessments of soil microbial health. Advances such as genome editing enable the development of crop varieties that can tolerate stresses like drought, high temperatures, salinity, and pest attacks.
- Alongside this, AI-based analytical tools process diverse climatic and agronomic data to design location-specific agricultural practices.
- The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes climate-resilient agriculture as the capacity of farming systems to foresee, prepare for, adapt to, withstand, and recover from the effects of climate variability and extreme weather events.
- India’s agrarian economy supports a fast-expanding population, intensifying the demand for stable and sustained agricultural output.
- However, nearly 51% of the country’s net cultivated land depends on rainfall and contributes about 40% of total food production, rendering it highly sensitive to climatic fluctuations.
- Traditional agricultural practices by themselves are increasingly inadequate to cope with the mounting challenges posed by climate change.
- In this context, climate-resilient agriculture provides a range of technological solutions that aim to boost farm productivity while safeguarding ecological sustainability.
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture:
- The National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), an initiative of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), has examined the effects of climate change on farming systems and rural livelihoods.
- Findings suggest that without suitable adaptation strategies, projected climate changes during 2020–2039 could lead to yield declines of about 3% in irrigated rice, 7–28% in rainfed rice, 3.2–5.3% in wheat, and 9–10% in maize, while soybean yields may increase by 2.5–5.5%.
- Moreover, climate-induced extreme events such as droughts adversely impact food and nutritional intake, deepen poverty levels, trigger migration from rural areas, escalate farmer indebtedness, and weaken the adaptive capacity of agricultural communities.
- Agroforestry: Agroforestry refers to the integration of trees with agricultural crops, which contributes to better soil quality, limits land degradation, and supports ecological diversity. By improving moisture retention in the soil and offering diversified sources of income and resources, this approach provides multiple advantages to farming communities.
- Soil and Water Conservation: Measures such as contour bunds, farm ponds, and check dams play a crucial role in conserving soil moisture, preventing soil loss, and enhancing groundwater recharge. These interventions enable farmers to better manage drought conditions and water shortages, challenges that are intensifying due to climate change.
- Sustainable Agriculture: Approaches like crop diversification, organic cultivation, and integrated pest management minimize reliance on chemical inputs while restoring soil health. In addition, these methods help lower greenhouse gas emissions and strengthen farmers’ livelihoods and food security.
- Livestock Management: Practices including stall-feeding and crop–livestock integration enhance the efficiency and resilience of livestock production systems. At the same time, they reduce stress on natural resources, particularly grazing lands, which are increasingly under pressure as climate impacts intensify
- The Government of India is implementing the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), which serves as the overarching policy framework for climate-related interventions in the country.
- One of its key missions, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), focuses on strengthening the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate stress. Initially, NMSA was approved with three core components—Rainfed Area Development (RAD), On-Farm Water Management (OFWM), and Soil Health Management (SHM).
- Over time, additional initiatives were introduced, including the Soil Health Card Scheme (SHC), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Mission Organic Value Chain Development for the North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER), and the Per Drop More Crop programme. Further, the restructured National Bamboo Mission (NBM) was launched in April 2018 to promote sustainable land use and livelihoods.
- In the research domain, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated a flagship network programme titled National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) in 2011 to advance climate-adaptive farming practices.
- This multi-sectoral and multi-location initiative addresses climate variability while catering to the diverse needs of stakeholders across different agro-climatic regions. Its major pillars include research, field-level demonstrations, and capacity building, along with the preparation of policy inputs on agriculture–climate linkages.
- Key achievements under ICAR’s climate resilience efforts include the development of 1,888 climate-resilient crop varieties and the preparation of District Agriculture Contingency Plans (DACPs) for 650 districts.
- To shield farmers—particularly small and marginal cultivators—from climate-related risks, the Government launched the yield-based Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) alongside the Restructured Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS) from the Kharif season of 2016.
- These schemes aim to ensure income stability and promote sustainable agricultural production by offering financial assistance to farmers affected by crop losses due to natural calamities and adverse weather conditions.
- In 2011, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) initiated a flagship network programme titled National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA). To strengthen farmers’ capacity to cope with climate variability, the project has promoted and demonstrated location-specific climate-adaptive technologies across 448 climate-resilient villages.
- These interventions include practices such as the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), aerobic rice cultivation, direct-seeded rice, zero-tillage wheat, adoption of crop varieties resistant to extreme climatic stresses, and in-situ management of rice residues.
- Complementing these efforts, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been designed to improve farm productivity, particularly in rain-dependent regions, by emphasising integrated farming systems, efficient water management, soil health enhancement, and the coordinated use of resource-conserving practices.
- In recent years, the BioE3 policy has further recognised climate-resilient agriculture as a priority area for advancing biotechnology-driven solutions, many of which have already reached the commercial stage.
- A number of private sector firms now provide bio-inputs that enhance soil quality and lower reliance on chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
- At the same time, India’s digital agriculture ecosystem is rapidly expanding, with agritech startups delivering AI-based advisory services, precision irrigation systems, crop health surveillance, and yield forecasting tools to support climate-smart farming.
India encounters multiple constraints in expanding climate-resilient agriculture, particularly the limited uptake among small and marginal farmers due to challenges related to accessibility, awareness, and affordability. In addition, variations in the quality of biofertilisers and biopesticides have weakened farmer confidence in biological inputs. The diffusion of climate-resilient seed varieties has also been gradual, while advanced approaches such as gene-editing technologies are still at a nascent stage and unevenly adopted across States. Moreover, the digital divide restricts the effective use of precision farming tools and AI-driven advisory systems. These issues are further intensified by declining soil health, increasing water stress, and rapidly intensifying climate variability, which may surpass the pace of existing adaptation measures. Inadequate coordination across policies and institutions also poses a risk to the timely scaling of CRA initiatives.
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For Prelims: Climate Resilient Agriculture, National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), Soil Health Card Scheme (SHC)
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of India’s preparation for Climate -Smart Agriculture, consider the following statements:(2021)
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) 2. With reference to the ‘Global Alliance for ClimateSmart Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2018)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (b) |
CONSUMER RIGHTS
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National Consumer Rights Day in India marks the coming into force of the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, which received the President’s assent on 24 December 1986. In recognition of this milestone, 24 December is observed every year as National Consumer Day.
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This historic law was enacted to protect the rights of consumers, establish an effective system for resolving complaints related to goods and services, and guarantee fair practices and access to justice in the marketplace.
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The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 superseded the Consumer Protection Act, 1986. It identifies offences such as the supply of incorrect or deceptive information about the quality or quantity of goods or services and the publication of misleading advertisements. The Act also lays down measures to be taken when goods or services are found to be unsafe, hazardous, or harmful.
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Section 2(28) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 explains a “misleading advertisement” as one relating to any product or service that:
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(i) presents an untrue or incorrect description of the product or service; or
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(ii) offers a false assurance or is likely to deceive consumers regarding the nature, composition, quantity, or quality of the product or service; or
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(iii) communicates an implied claim which, if expressly stated by the manufacturer, seller, or service provider, would amount to an unfair trade practice; or
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(iv) intentionally withholds material information.
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Section 21 of the Act outlines the enforcement powers of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) against deceptive advertising. If, after inquiry, the CCPA concludes that an advertisement is false or misleading and prejudicial to consumer interests or violates consumer rights, it may direct the trader, manufacturer, advertiser, publisher, or endorser to withdraw or suitably alter the advertisement within a specified timeframe.
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The CCPA is empowered to levy a fine of up to ₹10 lakh and impose imprisonment up to two years on manufacturers or endorsers responsible for misleading advertisements. For repeated violations, the penalty may increase to ₹50 lakh, along with imprisonment up to five years. Additionally, the authority can prohibit endorsers from promoting any goods or services for up to one year, which may extend to three years for subsequent breaches of the Act.
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In November last year, the Union government issued fresh norms to curb deceptive advertising by coaching institutes, barring exaggerated or false assurances such as “100% selection” or “guaranteed employment”. These rules were framed by the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) following a surge in complaints received through the National Consumer Helpline.
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As per the new framework, coaching institutions are barred from making misleading statements about the nature and length of courses, qualifications of faculty, fee details and refund terms, success rates and rankings in examinations, as well as promises of assured jobs or salary hikes.
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The guidelines clarify that the term “coaching” covers educational assistance, academic guidance, structured study programmes and tuition, while excluding counselling services, sports training, and creative or artistic pursuits.
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Coaching centres are not permitted to use the names, images, or endorsements of successful candidates unless explicit written permission is obtained after their selection. They are also required to clearly display disclaimers and fully disclose key course-related information in their advertisements.
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The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) functions as India’s highest consumer regulatory body. It was constituted under Section 10(1) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 and started functioning on 24 July 2020.
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The Authority is responsible for overseeing violations of consumer rights, addressing unfair trade practices, and taking action against false or deceptive advertisements that harm the collective interests of consumers and the wider public.
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Powers and Functions of the CCPA include:
(i) Safeguarding, advancing, and enforcing consumer rights as a collective and preventing their infringement under the Act;
(ii) Curbing unfair trade practices and ensuring that individuals or entities do not indulge in such practices;
(iii) Preventing the circulation of misleading or false advertisements for goods or services that violate the Act or related rules and regulations;
(iv) Ensuring accountability of all parties involved in publishing deceptive advertisements;
(v) Initiating complaints before Consumer Commissions and examining issues connected to the protection of consumer rights;
(vi) Advising on the adoption of international agreements and standards relating to consumer protection;
(vii) Encouraging consumer awareness and supporting research in the area of consumer rights;
(viii) Providing guidance to Central and State governments and their departments on policies and measures aimed at consumer welfare.
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: General Studies II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which of the following statements about the 'Consumer Protection Act 2019' is not true? (UGC NET 2020)
A.It has widened the definition of consumer
B.It provides for E-filing of complaints
C.It establishes Central Consumer Protection Authority
D.It ignores mediation as an alternate disputes resolution mechanism
Answer (D)
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