• The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, commonly known as the Wassenaar Agreement, is an international export control regime that was established in 1996 in Wassenaar, the Netherlands.
• It came into existence as a successor to the Cold War–era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), which had been created to restrict the export of sensitive technologies to the Soviet bloc.
• Unlike COCOM, which was directed against specific countries, the Wassenaar Arrangement is not aimed at any single state; rather, it seeks to promote greater transparency and responsibility in transfers of arms and sensitive technologies globally.
• The key objective of the agreement is to ensure that exports of conventional arms and dual-use goods (technologies that can be used for both civilian and military purposes) do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities that could undermine regional or international security and stability.
• It emphasizes responsible transfers and prevention of destabilizing accumulations of arms, while at the same time recognizing the right of states to engage in legitimate trade for self-defence and economic development.
• Under the Wassenaar Arrangement, member states—currently numbering 42, including major arms exporters like the United States, Russia, and many EU nations—maintain and share information about their transfers of arms and sensitive technologies. The arrangement has two control lists: one for conventional arms and another for dual-use goods and technologies.
• Member countries use these lists to guide their own national export control policies. However, unlike a treaty, the Wassenaar Arrangement is not legally binding; instead, it relies on political commitments and voluntary cooperation among participants.
• For India, joining the Wassenaar Arrangement in December 2017 was a significant milestone. It gave India access to advanced technologies and boosted its image as a responsible player in global non-proliferation architecture.
• Membership also complements India’s participation in other export control regimes like the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Australia Group, strengthening its case for eventual entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
• One of the most significant global mechanisms in this field is the Wassenaar Arrangement, a multilateral framework designed to regulate exports of conventional weapons as well as dual-use goods and technologies.
• It operates on a voluntary coordination model where member states agree to follow common control lists and share information, but each government ultimately retains autonomy in granting licenses, implementing rules, and enforcing them.
• In 2013, its scope was widened to cover “intrusion software”—programs intended to circumvent security systems in networks, and certain surveillance or cyber-surveillance tools.
• Yet, the framework was originally built at a time when export controls were primarily concerned with physical items such as chips, hardware components, and devices, while software exchanges were regarded as secondary.

• This legacy design creates ambiguity for modern digital environments, particularly with technologies linked to cloud services. For instance, the Arrangement does not consistently treat the use, access, or remote management of software as an “export,” and it leaves room for countries to interpret technology transfers differently.
• The rise of the software-as-a-service (SaaS) model complicates the situation further, as users rely on remote functionalities rather than installing programs locally, a scenario that the Arrangement does not clearly define as an export of controlled technology.
• Another limitation is its consensus-based nature, which means any single participant can block proposed changes. Even when controls are introduced, the Arrangement requires each member to enforce them through its own national export control laws, which vary significantly in scope, ambition, and political will.
• This leads to uneven application across states, and many countries maintain exceptions for purposes such as defensive security research or internal transfers of technology, leaving considerable loopholes in the system

• India became a member of the Wassenaar Arrangement in 2017 and integrated its control lists into its SCOMET framework (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies).
• However, like many other members, India’s participation has largely been about enhancing its credibility in international export-control systems, rather than pushing for reforms that would make the Arrangement responsive to challenges posed by cloud-based technologies.
• Consequently, despite its growing membership, the regime has struggled to keep pace with emerging technologies most prone to misuse in surveillance and repression.
• For the Arrangement to stay relevant, its mandate must expand considerably. The catalogue of controlled technologies should explicitly cover digital infrastructure and services capable of enabling mass surveillance, profiling, discrimination, or cross-border data-driven policing—such as regional biometric databases or transnational data-sharing mechanisms.
• This would mean defining thresholds of capacity, while at the same time creating safeguards and licensing provisions that distinguish legitimate defensive or benign applications.
• Another limitation lies in how export is still framed predominantly as a physical transfer or software download. In the cloud era, however, an “export” could just as easily involve remote activation or an API call.
• The Arrangement therefore requires binding rules that equate remote enablement, delegation of administration rights, or authorisation with export whenever they provide access to a controlled technology.
• Moreover, stronger end-use controls are essential: for digital surveillance tools, the main danger is not military proliferation but mass violations of human rights.
• Licensing should thus be conditional not only on the technical nature of the product but also on who the user is, the jurisdiction they operate in, the governing oversight mechanisms, and the potential risk of abuse.
• The Arrangement’s voluntary character is another weakness, especially in high-risk environments.
• To be effective, a binding treaty or framework is needed, one that lays down minimum licensing standards, mandates denial of exports to atrocity-prone regions, and establishes mechanisms for peer monitoring and review.
• Given the borderless nature of cloud services, where actions in one jurisdiction can create consequences in another, stronger coordination is also vital. National authorities should be required to share information, harmonise licensing policies, and maintain common resources such as technical standards, a watchlist of suspicious users or entities, and real-time alert systems—for instance, to flag when a cloud provider extends services to a blacklisted state.
• Finally, because cloud and AI technologies evolve rapidly, the Arrangement must match that pace. A dedicated technical secretariat or expert committee could be empowered to suggest interim measures, accelerate the adoption of urgent controls, and integrate advice from independent specialists.
• Introducing a sunset clause—whereby controlled items automatically lapse unless actively renewed—could also keep the regime current. In fact, considering the difficulty of building global consensus, it may be worthwhile to establish parallel, domain-specific regimes for areas like AI, digital surveillance, and cyber weapons. These could align with the broader Wassenaar framework while retaining the flexibility to adapt more swiftly

Some influential countries may oppose tighter regulations on cloud services, claiming that such measures could hinder innovation, infringe on national sovereignty, or place excessive burdens on private companies. Because the Wassenaar Arrangement works by consensus, even a few dissenting states—particularly those that profit from exporting surveillance technologies—can obstruct reforms. On top of that, aligning cloud-based systems with existing control categories, setting thresholds, distinguishing between legitimate and harmful uses, and managing cross-border licensing make the process highly complex.

Nevertheless, a practical route forward remains feasible—and perhaps necessary—within the framework of the Arrangement. Certain countries, particularly within the European Union, have already begun introducing national-level export controls for advanced technologies that currently fall outside the scope of Wassenaar. The EU’s updated dual-use regulation, for example, now recognises that the transfer of cloud services can, in some cases, be subject to the same rules governing dual-use items

NATIONAL MAKHANA BOARD

• The newly established National Makhana Board aims to assist Makhana farmers in Bihar and other parts of India by boosting production, fostering innovation through new technologies, improving post-harvest handling, enhancing value addition, and streamlining processing and marketing. These efforts are expected to make Makhana more accessible in domestic markets, expand its export potential, and help create a strong brand identity.

• Bihar is the leading producer of Makhana, contributing nearly 90% of India’s total output. Cultivation is concentrated in nine districts of northern and eastern Bihar—Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj, and Sitamarhi—collectively forming the Mithilanchal region. Of these, Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, and Katihar account for roughly 80% of the state’s production.

• Besides Bihar, smaller-scale cultivation of Makhana is seen in Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, and it is also grown in countries such as Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea

 

3. Significance of the Makhana board

 

 

• The creation of the National Makhana Board in Bihar marks a crucial step for farmers engaged in Makhana cultivation. The state government had long urged the Centre to implement policies that would support and promote this sector.

• Even though Bihar contributes nearly 90% of India’s total Makhana production, it has struggled to benefit from the growing national and international demand. Interestingly, the largest exporters of Makhana in the country are Punjab and Assam, with Punjab exporting the crop despite not cultivating it at all.

• This disparity is largely due to Bihar’s underdeveloped food processing industry and weak export infrastructure. The absence of cargo facilities at the state’s airports further restricts direct exports. Additionally, productivity remains low as Makhana cultivation is highly labor-intensive, which raises input costs significantly.

• Another challenge is the slow adoption of high-yield seed varieties such as Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1, developed by agricultural research institutes, which could otherwise boost production efficiency.

• The establishment of the Makhana Board is expected to transform the sector by giving a strong push to production in Bihar and across India, positioning the state prominently on the global Makhana map.

• The Board’s initiatives are likely to include farmer training programs to make them more export-oriented, the development of an ecosystem to attract investments in food processing, and the creation of the necessary export infrastructure

 

4. Makhana as a black diamond

 

 

• Makhana, known in English as fox nut, is the dried edible seed of the prickly water lily or gorgon plant (Euryale ferox). This aquatic plant thrives in freshwater ponds across South and East Asia and is easily identified by its purple and white blossoms and its large, spiny, circular leaves, which can grow over a meter wide.

• The edible portion consists of small, round seeds with a black to dark brown outer covering, which has earned Makhana the nickname “Black Diamond.”

• Once processed, these seeds are often roasted or puffed into light snacks called ‘lava.’ Makhana is highly nutritious, offering a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, and essential minerals. Owing to its health benefits and medicinal properties, it is consumed in multiple forms for dietary, therapeutic, and culinary purposes.

• In 2022, Mithila Makhana received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag, which certifies that the product originates from a specific region and possesses unique qualities or a reputation linked to that area. This GI tag remains valid for 10 years and can be renewed thereafter.

• Climatic Conditions for Cultivation:

  • Makhana is an aquatic crop grown mainly in tropical and subtropical climates.

  • It is cultivated in stagnant water bodies such as ponds, wetlands, lakes, land depressions, and ditches with water depths of 4–6 feet.

  • Ideal growth conditions include a temperature range of 20–35°C, relative humidity between 50–90%, and annual rainfall of 100–250 cm

 

 

5. National Turmeric board

 

 

• On 29th June, Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation Amit Shah inaugurated the newly established headquarters of the National Turmeric Board in Nizamabad, Telangana.

• The National Turmeric Board was set up by the Central Government in January this year, with a target of reaching USD 1 billion in turmeric exports by 2030.

• The Board has been tasked with boosting the turmeric sector nationwide, with a special focus on Telangana. It will serve as a nodal body for addressing issues related to turmeric cultivation and trade, coordinate with the Spices Board and other agencies, and support initiatives to strengthen production, processing, and marketing of turmeric.

• India holds the distinction of being the world’s largest producer, consumer, and exporter of turmeric, with major production concentrated in Telangana, Maharashtra, and Meghalaya. The country commands over 62% of the global turmeric trade. In FY 2023–24, India exported 1.62 lakh tonnes of turmeric and turmeric-based products worth USD 226.5 million

 

6. Makhana

 

• Makhana, also known as fox nut or gorgon nut, is the dried edible seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), an aquatic plant commonly found in freshwater ponds across South and East Asia.
• The plant is easily identifiable by its large, prickly circular leaves, which can exceed a meter in diameter, and its violet and white flowers. The edible seeds have a blackish-brown outer coating, earning them the nickname “Black Diamond.”
• After processing, the seeds are roasted or popped to make a light snack called ‘lava,’ which is widely consumed.
• Makhana is valued for its nutritional richness, being a good source of carbohydrates, protein, and minerals, and has wide applications in food, healthcare, and traditional medicine.
• Bihar is the leading producer of Makhana, accounting for nearly 90% of India’s production. Cultivation is concentrated in nine districts of the Mithilanchal region, including Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj, and Sitamarhi, with the first four contributing almost 80% of the state’s output.
• In addition to Bihar, Makhana is cultivated in smaller quantities in Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, as well as in countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea.
• Recognizing its unique regional identity, Mithila Makhana was granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2022, which is valid for ten years and can be renewed.
• Makhana is typically grown in tropical and subtropical climates and thrives in stagnant water bodies such as ponds, wetlands, ditches, and lakes with water depths of about 4–6 feet.
• The ideal temperature range for cultivation is 20–35°C, with relative humidity between 50–90% and annual rainfall ranging from 100 to 250 cm. Despite being the largest producer, Bihar has faced several challenges in leveraging its dominant position in the global Makhana market.
• The state lacks a robust food processing industry and export infrastructure, as none of its airports have cargo facilities.
• Cultivation remains highly labor-intensive, resulting in high input costs, and farmers have been slow to adopt high-yield varieties such as Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1 developed by agricultural research institutions

 

7. Way Forward

 

To address these challenges and unlock the sector’s potential, the Central Government established the National Makhana Board in 2024, headquartered in Bihar. The Board aims to promote production through modern technologies, improve post-harvest management, encourage value addition, and strengthen processing and marketing channels. It will also train farmers to become export-oriented, facilitate investment in food processing, and create the necessary infrastructure to enable exports. These efforts are expected to boost production, expand market access, and enhance Bihar’s presence on the global Makhana map

 

For Prelims: Makhana, Makhana Board, Geographical Indication (GI) tag   For Mains: GS II - Governance

 

 

Source: Indianexpress